OF
SCIENCE AND ARTS.
CONDUCTED BY PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jr, AND
JAMES D. DANA,
IN CONNECTION WITH PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK.
SECOND SERIES.
VOL. XXII.—NOVEMBER, 1856.
WITH THREE PLATES AND A MAP.
NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. NEW YORK: G. P, PUTNAM & CO. eee eee 'B. HAYES, PRINTER,
MameauR! BOTANICAL GaReEn LIBRARY we .
ii Baie
oe i me,
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXII.
NUMBER LXIV.
Art. I. Notice of Microscopic Forms found in the soundings of the Sea of Kamtschatka—with a plate ; by Prof. J. W. Barney,
II. Examination of two Sugars (Panoche and Pine ee from California ; by Samuet W. Jounson, -
III. On the Composition of the Muscles in the pee Serie
by MM. Vatenciennes and Frémy, - - :
IV. A Review of the Classification of Crustacea with velerawes
to certain principles of Classification; by James D. Dana, -
V. On the Mode of testing Building Materials, and an account of the Marble used in the Extension of the United States =
itol; by Professor Josepn Henry, - - VI. On the Occurrence of the Ores of Iron in the ree a ace : by J. D. Wuirney, - : - :
VII. Obituary of Professor Zadock Kbatjobes - wih sped VIII. On the Influence of the Solar Radiation on the Vital Powers of Plants growing under different Atmospheric ier by J. H. Giapsronsg, Ph.D., F.R.S., - - - IX. Reports of Explorations and Surveys to ascertain ihe most practicable and economical route for a Railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, - X. Five New Mineral Species; by Prof. Cuartes v. damien XI. Correspondence of M. Jerome Nicxtis—Report on the his- tory of the manufacture of Artificial Soda, 99.—Manufac- ture of Chinese Porcelain, 101.—Peculiar arrangement of a Voltaic Battery : The natural state of Hippuric Acid, 102.— Astronomical news, 103.—Equatorial Telescope: Zenith Telescope: Stereoscopic experiment: Use of brine in food, 104
1
i @
lv CONTENTS.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
gemvod ew Physics.—On the production of very high temperatures, 105.—On a new ming ether and its homulogues: On the equivalent of antimony: On the — detection * phosphorus in cases of ens! 107. Sirreme = = Specific —— of —— = nitrogen p om ts and selenium, 108.
n Earthquakes in California from 1812 to 1855, by J. B. Trasx, 110.—Geo-
covered by Dr. F. V. Hayden in the Lands of the Judith me Nebraska Terri- tory, by Joszrpu Lerpy, M.D., 118.—Notice of a new Fossil G belon siti to the family Blastoidea, from the Devonian strata near Louisville, iy. fe es B. F. Saumarp,
.D., and L. P. Yanpexu, M.D., 120.—Reptilian Remains in the New Red Sandstone of Pennsylvania, by I. Lea, 122.—On the composition of the Water of the Delaware River, by Henry Wurrz, 124.--On the successive changes of the kbemwp of Serapis,
Sir Cuarxtes LYELL, a 126.—A Geological Reconnoissance of the State of .
Tennessee, by James M. Sarrorp, 129.—Fossil Fishes of the Carboniferous Strata of Ohio “Cheabeces Fossils of Neividbar 133.
Botany and Zoology.—Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, London, 134. —Origin of the Embryo in Plants, 135.—Sexual reproduction in Alge, 136.—Martius : i '7.—Prof. W
Dinornis, 138.—A new species of turkey from Mexico, 139 Astronomy.—New Planets: Elements of the Planet Letitia, 140.
iscellaneous Intelligence —Ozone, 140.—On Ozone in the Atmosphere, by W. B.RocEers, 141—The Tides at Ponape, or Ascension Island of the Pacific Occan, by L. Guuick, _
D., 142.—On a peculiar case of Color Blindness, by J. Tynpau, F.R.S., 143.— _ Infirinaiton to Students visiting Europe, 146.—Geographical Society at Paris, 148—A — Table showing the times of opening and closing of the Mississippi River, by T. S. Par- vin: Chemical Technology or Chemistry in its application to Arts and Manufactures, by Dr. Epmunp Ronaxps and Dr. ens Ricuarpson, 149.—Western Academy 0 iattiral Sciences, Cincinnati, O.: American Association for the Advancement of Sci- ence: Mantell’s Medals of Creation : *isAbabtlons of the Connecticut State Agricul- tural Society, for the year 1855: The Art of Perfumery, and Method of obtaining the Odors of Plants, by G. W. Septimus Presse, 150.—Obituary.—Death of Dr. James G. Percival, 150.—The late Dr. John C. Warren, 151.—Daniel Sharpe, Esq., 152.
NUMBER LXV.
Arr. XII. On the Measurement of the Pressure of Fired Gun- ee powder in its Practical apcieesae - Witiiam E. Woop- BRIDGE, M.D., . - -
XIII. Description of the Sis ceone process saskieea for the Photo-Meteorographic Registrations at the Radcliffe Obser- vatory ; by Wituiam Crookes, Esq., - - 16
CONTENTS. v
XIV. On a Zeolitic mineral (allied to Stilbite) from the Isle er Skye, Scotland; by J. W. Matter, Ph.D., - - : XV. On the Application of the Mechanical est of Heat to
the Steam Engine; by R. Crausivus, ee 180 XVI. Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States; by Asa Gray, - a
XVII. Letter on the it ai of Practical Geology of “Gi Britain ; by Sir Ropericx I. Murcuison,
XVIII. Remarks on the Genus Tetradium, with shoot ct fe Species found in Middle igen by Prof. J. M. Sar-
ForD, A.M., - - “ - : - 236 | XIX. A new Fossil Shell in = eae 68 River Sandstone ; by E. Hitcncock, Jr, - 239
XX. On the Eruption at Hawaii; by Bi, Tivs Oeil - - 240 XXI. On the Purification of ee pepacaticl ; by M. Er- nest NickLés, - 244 XXII. Third Supplement to Dana’ s ‘isiaidays ; by the Ait, 246 XXII[. Correspondence of M. Jerome Nickuis—Academy of Sciences—Death of M. Binet: Agricultural Universal Exhi- bition: Fecula of the Horse-chestnut, 264.—Astronomy : View of a part of the surface of the Moon, 265.—Meteor- ological System of France, 266.—Inundations : Electricity : —Substitute for the copper wire in the construction of He- s lices, 267.—Effects with Ruhmkorff’s Apparatus of Induc- : tion: Electric Chronometers: Gas and Steam Manometer Alarm: On a Cause of Atmospheric Electricity, 268.— Bibliography, 269. —
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Some experiments in Electro physiology, by Prof. MatrTrvcct, 270.—Selenium : Iodine, 271
veined and Geology.—Meteoric Iron of Thuringia, 271. —Meteoric Iron of Cape of Good Hope: Meteoric Stone of Mezé-Madaras in Siebenburg: On the Volcanoes of aehain Italy, 272.—On the Isthmus of Suez, by M Renavp, 273.—On the Mines of Mineral Coal in Peru, by M. E. pe Rivero, 274.--Waters of Lake Ooroomiah, by Heney Wirt, 276 —On the Koh-i-Noor Diamond, 278.—On the origin of Greensand and its furmation in the Ocean of the present epoch, by Prof. J. W. BarLey, 230. — [See also, p. 296.]
- Botany and Zoology.—Wild Potatoes in New Mexico and Western Texas, 284.—Notes
alved Entomostraca: Cum eee 235 eorgtee Maderensia, or Insects
” of the Maderian Group, by T. Vernon Woutastos, M.A., F.R.S.: On the Variation
| of Species with especial reference to the mes, pea ba an inquiry into the Na-
, © ture of Genera, by the same, 236..--On e Fresh water Entomostraca of South
: America, by Joun Lussock, Esq., F.Z.S
on Paleozoic Biv
vi CONTENTS.
stron Stats of August 10, 1856.—Astronomical Observatory at the — University of 5 alae 290.
Miscellaneous {ntelligence.—Observations on the climates of California, by GEORGE
BaRTLETT, —Apparatus for taking specific gravity, b sts. ECKFELDT and Dusors, 294.—Discovery of Paleozoic Fossils in Eastern Massachusetts, by Professor Rogers, 296.--Hailstorm in Guilford County, N. C., 298.—Monks Island or
Colombian Guano, by Dr. A. S. Prego, 299.—On the Monks Island Guano, by Dr. Es, 300.—Neo-Macropia: Artificial light for taking photographs, 300.—Wa- ters of the Dead Sea: Density of the a of the Caspian Sea, by A. Morrrz:
raphy, by J. P. Lesuey, se Son A Treatise on Land Surveying, by Professor W. M. a Givvesriz, A.M.: Annals of the peccitaaiad Observatory of Harvard College, 302.
--Manual of Blowpipe. ‘lay sis, for the use of Students, by Prof. Winuiam Ex- : pErHorst: Notices of new Publications, 303. i
NUMBER LXVI.
Page. Art. XXIV. On American Geological History : Address before
the American Association for the Advancement of eae August, 1855, by James D. Dana, - 30) j XXV. On the Plan of Development in the Geological Hisibey of "a North America, with a map; by James D. Dana, - - 335 XXVI-° Re-determination of the Atomic Mei of Lithium ; by Prof. J. W. Mayet, - - XXVII. On the Relations of the Fossil Fishes of he Bacctton of Connecticut and other Atlantic States to the Liassic and Oolitic Periods; by W, C, Reprrexp, - - XXVIII. On the Application of the Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine; by R. Crausivs, - XXIX. Examination of the Meteoric Iron from Kivi, Maen : by W. J. Tayor, - - . : XXX. On the Heat in the Sun’s ae ; “ cn roid - S172 XXXI. Circumstances 2d the Heat of the Sun’s Rays; by Eunice Foorr, — - - - XXXII. Review of a portion of the Geologist oe of the United States and British Provinces Y Jules Marcou ; “2 WILtiam P, Buake,~ - XXXII. On New Fossil Corals pote North Guatigg, by E. Emmons, - é ”
CONTENTS, vii
XXXIV. Description of an Isopod Crustacean from the Antarctic Seas, with Observations on the New South Shetlands; PY James Eteuts.—With two plates, - 391
XXXV. Description of a large Bowlder in the Drift of Kabiseit Massachusetts, with parallel strie upon four sides; by Pro- fessor Epwarp Hircncocx, - . . : - 397
ae SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE,
Chemistry and Physics.—On the wave lengths of the most refrangible rays of light in the Interference Spectrum, 400.——On the connection between the theorem of the equiva-
pra of formic fi cat the determination of chlorine by titri-
among Solutions, and the means of representing them, by Dr. GuapsTonr, 412.—On : several new methods of detecting Strychnia and Brucia, by T. Horsxey, 413 Geology.—On the Spongeous Origin of the Siliceous Bodies of the Chalk Formation, by J.S. Bowersank: On some Paleozoic Star fishes, compared with Living Forms, by J. W. aeerens age —On - nichts ee - we Earth, by Prof. Hennessy, 416. the
I ies, by J. W. Sate
—On 417.—On the Bone Beds of the Upper: Ludlow Rock, and the base of the Old Red Sand-
stone URCHISON, 418. sil Mammal (Stereognathus ooliticus) from the Stonesfield Slate, by Prof. Owrn, ti —On the Dichodon cuspidatus,
Upper Eocene of the Isle of Wight and Hordwell, Hants, by P Nn, 420.—On a range of Volcanic Islets to the Southeast of Japan, A. G. Finpuay, 421.—On the
n _ New Red Sandstone Formation of Pennsylvania, vd Isaac Lea, 422.—Descriptions of : New as of Acephala and Gasteropoda, from the Tertiary SobeumtSocte of Nebraska tory, with some general remarks on the cacy of the Pagel about the sources
*y he Missouri River, by F. B. Meek and F. V. ponange M.D.,
and —AlIph. DeCandolle hi se, ou Exposition des Faites ‘cfg et des Lois concernant fe. Distribution Gsiieaphique des ne de l’'Epoque Actuelle, 429.—Origin of the Embryo in Plants, 432—Bentham, Note Loganiacee, 433.—The Flowers of the Pea-Nut, 435—Martius, Flora Diatienais: : L R. Tulasne, Monographia Monimiacearum, 436.—Chloris oe Essai d’une Flore de la Region Alpine des Cordilléres de Padecigle du Sud, par H. A. Weppe.t, M.D. :; Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States, by Prof. Asa Gray, 437.--Report on the present state of our knowledge of the Mollusca of California, by Rev. P. Car- PENTER, 438.—On the Vital Powers of the Spongiade, by Mr. Bowersanx, 439.— Gar-pikes, 440. “ara —New Planets, Harmonia, 440,—Daphne : Isis, 441,
Bae Se ae
Miscellaneous Intelligence —American Association for the Advancement of Science, 441. = Meteor of July 8th, by W. Sprtuman, 448.—-Sulphuric Acid Barometer: Can- Obi
: British Selina, 449,--Geology of the Pacific and other regions visited by the U. S. Explor- _ing Expedition under C. Wilkes, U. S. N., in the years 1838-1842, by James D. Dana:
viii CONTENTS.
A Chronological Table of Cyclonic Hurricanes, by ANDRES Rents 452,——! of some Remains of Fishes from the Carboniferous and Devo n Formations of the”
mutes — by J. J. eices ae M.A., F.R.S.: Fossils of pase Carolina, by sti
Reicheenstlt, bidNopiewske Darstellung der Sisinkohlen-foration in sachaok® i H
Das Normal Verhiiltniss der chemischen und morphologischen Proportionen, von ADOLF
ZEIs1NG, 154.—Principles of Chemistry, by Prof. Joun A. Porter, M.A., M.D., 455.
List of Works, 455. Index, 456.
ERRATA.
_P. 1, line 2 from bottom, for *Dictyopyxis read Dictyopyxis; 1. 4 from bottom, for Dicla- — read *Dicladia : p- 2, ‘lines | and 2 from top, for *Coscinodiscus, read Cos cinodiseus 5 ‘ 2 Eg ey for Rhizosolenia, read *Rhizosolenia ; 1. + from top, for Diffloga, read * Dif- 16 from top, for Eucyrtidium, read *Eucyrtidium, in both c
[SECOND SERIES.]
XIL—On the Measurement of the powder in its Practical Applications;
‘brine,
ee
154 WL. We vbr idge on the Pressure of Fired Gunpowder. a
othe, iM
a oem aga ete
_sive rupture to time are but imperfectly known. ’ The following experiment seems to show that the extreme — force of gunpowder fired in small quantities does not exceed ~ 6200 atmospheres. I enclosed in a hollow cylinder of cast-steel — 14 inch in exterior diameter and 4 inch in diameter interiorly, — 20 grains of Hazzard’s Kentucky rifle powder, which filled, — loosely, the cavity. This was fired by a flash of powder péne- — trating through the aperture of a valve (of steel) opening inward, ~ but designed to prevent the escape of gas outward. ‘The cylin- ~ der was not ruptured, and being put under water, no gas wai found to escape. (The weight of the instrument was too to test the loss of gas by my scales.) On pressing in the valve by means of a screw, an abundance of gas escaped, carryin with it the odor of sulphuretted hydrogen. The seat of the valve was found to remain eat a fact which when compared wi
calculated strength of the cylinder would be equal to an inte ressure of about 93000 lbs. per square inch, or 6200 atm
_ which od pressure was restrained, a piezometer* which by regis- = e compression of the oil which it contained, should indicate the pressure ,to which it was exposed. The piezometer used in the experiments is a small cylindrical vessel of steel, inclosing a quantity of oil which receives the pressure of the fluid by which it may be surrounded seer the medium of a
point, which, when the mri is ee makes a.line on
ie he
the stem, equal in length to the distance through which the pis- “
partial rotation of the piston, after the adjustment of the quantity of oil, inscribes a transverse line on the stem, from which to measure the one denoting the compression. The len ngth of the mark is measured under the microscope by means of a rule divi- ded into ;,';zths of an inch. The details of the construction of
at
and graduated tube. The scale upon the tube was ; marked ed ym means of a ere -machine, and the capacities of ' re equal, so far as determined by a careful exam- umns of sehen, of different lengths. The capac oe vision was equal to one part in 3762-2 of the ‘ Yolupes of the oil at 60° Fahr. To the bore of the tube (0:038 diameter) was fitted an iron piston, packed by a ring of ercny occupying -a groove turned in its edge. This arrange- ent was found to hee accurate observation, wg to answer its irpose well in all respects. The instrument was enclosed in a strong tubular receiver, having windows of athay throng which it could be inspected. The windows are truncated cones, having their bases inward, and are fitted to conical cavities in opposite of the receiver. A rack and pinion, worked by a little assing through the side of the receiver, serve to bring : He use of the sabe piezometer to say iia Brrr Foskowe the measurement of
W. E. Woodbridge on the Pressure of Fired Gunpowder. 155
oe
W. E. Woodbridge on the Pressure of Fired Gunpowder. 157
due to the elevation of temperature mentioned, than that pro- duced by the same force slowly applied. The actual amount of this difference has not been ascertained, but data which lack the recision necessary to exact results, indicate that the correction ue to this cause, which increases with both depression of tem- perature, and increase of pressure, is not unimportant. No attempt has been made however, to introduce this correction into he results subsequently presented of the experiments with the piezometer. The subject has been reserved in hope of future ments, for which apparatus has been partially prepared. . the fall of 1852 a piezometer was constructed on the plan . which has been described, and was used, to test its working, for a few firings, in a4 pdr. gun at Perth Ambo 1853, assistance was granted me from the . 8. Ordnance De- partment for testin my plan, and the subject was referred to ajor Alfred Mordecai, with whom I had the pleasure and honor to be associated in making the experiments thus author- ized, which, however, on account of various hindrances, were not undertaken until the winter of 1854-5.
i, ee"
ae ah ee
to Ae it Jape on. ‘ied pereton the explosion, was attached b screwing to the bottom of the bore of the gun, occupying a _ place in the centre of the charge, but the screw was twice bro- en o * and this mode of _— the instrument, which was orig- inally adopted to avoid injuring the gun so as to render it un- serviceable, was exchang near the Ho man The new elec was e ollow plug of steel : ed into th of the sud so that the cavity of the plug “shaban ee with the bore of the gun. A lea ther case sur- rounded the instrument to protect it against injury from the ‘shock of firing, and the remaining space within the nig: of the plug was filled with oil, which was retained b cork or leather loosely closing the communication wi the en This arrangement was used in all the subsequent firing with _eannon, and was entirely satisfactory. The length of the pie- - Zometer was 2°5 inches, jts diameter 0:7 inch, and the diameter of its piston 0°252 in, "The adjustment of the quantity of oil in
158 W. E. Woodbridge on the Pressure of Fired Gunpowder.
the instrument was made at the temperature at which the gun was fired. In the brass gun several holes were made for receiv-. ing the instrument at different distances (specified in the table) from the bottom of the bore. When not in use, these holes were closed by plugs fitted to eac
In the experiment with the taasices barrel, a part of the breech-end, in the rear of the charge, was made to serve as a substitute for the cavity of the screw plug, in receiving the pie, zometer. ;
The experiments.are to be regarded altogether as peering ary trials, but they are not, I hope, without interest and value. The following table presents the most interesting of the results,
| Btperiments on the pressure id Jired Gunpowder,
Bs
e Powillt. Shot. Dist’nce Hy piezomet’r J GUN. , g i ee gi : btm ae Remarks. _ |Weig’t. | Height.| bee. }Diam. = 2 Ibs. in. Ibs. in. in. ba. {| 125 | 35 | 640 (858 | (8:25) a3 Piezomet’r attach’d to “ ev 632 | « “ the bottom of the bore.) “ *, 2 “ . | ae j ‘ : a che 2 1% yen oo Rie ok 6 pdre } “ 3°42 63 “ “ “15 | 40 6 32 sey bes 53 “ “ 6°33 “ “ 0 “ “ 6°29 “ “ 47° LA 4°55 | 631 * bk 59° ie el es Gg d ES ee “" 8° er in coe ge} « | 435 | 635 | « # 168° “ | 455 | 636 (3575) - 4 [53° 18510) /Mean of . solide « | « |684} « | 7g [50° | 9575\Mean unds. «| « |639 | « | are laa? | 7740Mean of 84 bs 8; 6°38 wi 158 |52° } 957 Kis es . = 6-29 40 28'S = 50° Brass 4 “ “ 633 “ 318 “ 6 pdr. “ « 6°36 “ 39°8 “ 77 « 6°34 “ 478 “ “ 4:48 6 l l “ 1 “ “ 4°65 0 “ “ 20/605} 0 |.. lige 88 0 “ “ 14820 20 | 565 | 636 |3:575) « 20640 Mean of 2 rounds. 4 0 ji 885 64. “ “ 20| 15 | 438 1216 1366; 15 | « 20480 Cylinders =. to 2 bi “ “ee oo} “ “ 2) 6 pdr. }} «| @ |ioag | « « |g9° sor grains, in. 70 | o7 | 666 0675 60° a
Tn the first two experiments recorded in the —— the orifice of the piezometer was 3} inch es from the
W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 159
the bore, and was covered but } inch deep with powder—th _ orifice facing toward the muzzle of the gun. The momentum of the gases rushing forward in the explosion seems to have re- lieved the instrument from a part of the pressure sustained by the sides of the bore at the same distance from the bottom he variations of pressure sustained by the gun when fired _with charges very nearly the same, are greater, as might be ex- ected, than the variations of initial velocity imparted to the under similar circumstances. When the combustion of the
action on the ball is not so well sustained as in the case in which the combustion is more slow and consequently longer
continued. The { following svi of initial eae of 6 pdr. balls, extracted from a table in Major Mordecai’s “Second Report” a his ex-
periments on mere aor will ee for the compariso Initial velocities of balls fired from a 6 pdr. gun,
x Powder. ~___ Shot, Titial ; Weight.| Height | We ghi We ght. _Dinm.— Velocity. lbs. ia. A, Tes 5 ila _— Ift.pr.sec’d. . 1 4 611 358 |} 1594 15 48 615 f i 1 15 49 613 e 94 16 6 26 * 153 q 15 687 | * | 1°98 ent Seg 15 63 - 1520 | 3
a : ‘Ae, xt se Dedeviption of the Wax-paper process peblames 4 for the’ chow So i Ae ro at the Radcliffe Ubserv Ek sae by oS KES, Esq.*
EFORE attem ting to seledt from the numerous Photo- - thse ‘best adapted to the. requirements of ‘ pa ee it was necessary to take into consideration a num- ber of circumstances, ~stawre a wad unimportant in ordinary _ operations. — To “ of any valu continuously : TSetet. "Therefore, the process adopted must be one combining sharpness of definition, with extreme sensitiveness, in order to ? mark accurately the minute and oftentimes sudden variations of the instruments. ees. the Astronomical and Meteorological Observations made at the Radcliffe : Oherr Oxford, in the year 1854, under the superin of Manuel J. MA » Radelifle Observer. Vol. X
,, the records must go on ‘heeasiigy and
V. Oxford:
160 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process.
2nd. To avoid all hurry and confusion, it is of the utmost im- portance that the prepared paper or other medium, be of a kind —
sitive by the nitrate of magnesia process, was a failure. igi 4th. Strong contrast of light and shade, and absence of half
pictures, is in this case no objection. spe ping 5th. It is essential to preserve the original results in an ac- cessible form; and for this reason, the daguerreotype process, : ly as it seems to answer other requisites, 1s obviously not the one best suited to our purpose. q
W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 161
description of the manipulation, as may render it more service- able to those who have not hitherto paid attention to photo- graphy in its practical details. This must be my excuse, if to some i seem unnecessarily prolix. None but a practical hotog- rapher can appreciate upon what apparently trivial aid
Among those requisites, which may be almost called absolute necessaries, are gas, and a plentiful supply of good water, as soft as can be procured.
4. The windows and shutters of the room should be so con- trived as to allow of their either being thrown wide open for pur- poses of ventilation, or of being closed sufficiently well to exclude every gleam of daylight; and the arrangement should admit of the transition from one’ to the other being made with as little
€: ,
5. A piece of very deep orange-colored glass, about two feet
Square, should be put in the window, and the shutter ought to be constructed so i
di for illumination at night; arrangement for placing a screen of orange glass in
rough deal benches should be put up in different parts F the room, witl shelves, drawers, cupboards, &. The arrange- tment of these matters must of course depend upon the capabili- ties of the room. ae ; 7. The following apparatus is required. The quantities are _ those that we have found necessary in this Observatory. ‘Hight dishes. Eight mill board covers. 4 _ Three brushes for cleaning dishes. A vessel for melting wax.
_ SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856. 21
162 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. Two ge ee box
Sltcrica pa caper A still for water.
One finned stand. *. Pint, half vm one ounce, and one RSD, measures.
Three glass Boxes for holding paper. ae es and eo mopar niy s m4 r sto tties, 8. The erates may be made OF glass ass, porcelain, or gutta perc | Glass and porcelain are cortatily cleaner than gutta corked a8 d for general use the latter is far preferable, as with it there is no .
risk of breakage, and the bottom of the dish can be made per- ~ fectly flat, which is a great advantage, These dishes should is be ~ made of sufficient length to allow of a margin of about half an — inch at each end when the paper is in; and the shape should be ~ made as nearly square as —— by arranging them to ane : two or three sheets side b EL
ver. 9. The ae etep for cleanin common pecwbing brush will be
W. Crookes on the War-paper Photographic Procees. 168
common water, once with distilled water, and then placed in a
: slanting position against a wall, face downwards, to drain on
| clean blotting paper.
: 11. The vessel in which the wax is melted, must be contrived SO as never to allow of its reaching a higher temperature than 212° Fahr., or decomposition of the wax might ensue. I have
found the most convenient apparatus to be, a tin vessel 15 inches
i square and 4 inches deep, having a tray which holds the wax
fitting into it, about 1 inch deep. The under vessel is to be half
7 filled with water, and by keeping this just at the boiling tem-
__ perature, the wax above will soon become liquid.
_ 12. The best source of heat is that known as the gauze gas
burner, it being free from smoke or dust, and not liable to
_ _ blacken anything placed over it. It consists of a common argand burner fixed on a rather low and heavy iron stand, which is sur-
uare inch fastened over the top. _ y connecting this burner by means of vulcanised indian rubber tubing to the gas pipe, it can be moved about the table to any convenient position, The mixture of gas and air formed inside the cylinder, is to be lighted e the wire gauze; it burns over this with a large and nearly
Shea msequence. So j ee a plate of silver; this is very expensive, and seems
- wove blotting paper, - éedium thickness. But this is not suff-
J as the quantity required is trifling. A convenient size for the still is about two gallons; it may procured ready made, with
_ worm &c. complete, of any large dealer in chemical apparatus, _ Tt will be found far more economical both in time and trouble,
a
164 W. Crookes on the Wax paper Photographie Process.
to heat the water over a charcoal or coke fire, in preference to using gas for this purpose. | 16.
ckets. P'The measures should be of glass, graduated, the pint and half pint into ounces, the ounce measure into drachms, and the — drachm measure into minims; they should be rather long in © proportion to their width. ee ~ a "he Florence oil flasks, which can be obta
btained | ra trifle ab
any warehouse, will be found to answer ws ge nearly as hey must be done by
well as the more expensive German flas
cleansed thoroughly from the adhering oil; this may be boiling in them, over the gauze gas burner, a strong soluti ordinary washing soda, and afterwards well rinsing out ¥
W. Crookes on the ee Process. 165
A sponge will be found Ao ‘for wiping up any of the solu- tions that may have cm spilt on the bench. Solid glass stirring rods of about the thickness of a quill, and six or eight inches long, and a small medeetan pestle and mortar, are of great service in many of the operations.
Stoppered bottles should be employed for all the solutions ; and too much care cannot be taken to label each bottle accurately and distinctly.
19. Besides the above apparatus, the following materials and chemicals are requisite. A rough estimate is also given of their relative consumption in three months Photographic a 270 sheets, ¢ or 112 square feet.
‘our pounds of
hree ounces of iodid of ener
Phree ounces of bromid of potass
: ‘our ounces of nitrate of silver.
5 _ Two ounces of glacial acetic acid.
~ eadfour ounces of gallic acid.
~ One pint of alcohol. :
Seven pounds of hyposulphite of soda.
Half a pound of cyanid of potassium.
- Half a pint of concentrated nitric acid.
__ Eighteen gallons of distilled water. 20. The selection of a good sample of paper for the basis on
a
ance, as any imperfection will be a source of annoyance in every i fineked of the process, and will hardly fail to show itself on the ‘fini ture. The paper, which from numerous ex ee to be superior to any other, is that in photographic is his is mannlietared with
saan will be found by far the sa advantageous p ae when used as ls like the present, to order wholesale sta- ti nt cut
ta: the requisite dimensions. The size of the sheets by aot inches*. Hitherto Messrs. Street, have supplied us with the
21. I am indebted ey Mr. Barchiy of Regent Street, wax bleacher, for much valuable information concerning wax and its adulteratio tions, and for an extensive assortment of waxes of all
_ * This i ® most inconvenient size, as it involves the cutting of more than one
thind of the ps erto waste. The admirably ingenious arrangement of Mr. Ronald’s, was not ae the view of em) man rah copra paper; or it would doubtless
have been contrived to accomodate of a size which could be cut with less
2 ast much A544 by. 14 incben, ox 44 by 11 1ti
166 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process.
kinds, and in every degree of purity: also to Mr. Maskelyne, for a valuable series of the chemical bodies of which the various _ waxes are composed; by means of these, I have been enabled ~ to examine the effect produced by saturating the paper with — bees wax from different countries, Myrica wax, Canauba wax, — China wax, spermaceti, ethal, stearic acid, stearin, palmitic acid, palmitin, paraffin, and various oils.
22. I find that the action of the wax is purely mechanical, almost the only difference of effect produced by any of the above bodies, widely as they vary in their chemical nature, arising from 3
a difference in their physical properties.
aos
EE a ne a
Stearin, palmitin, and most of the oils, are too greasy in their nature to be advantageously employed. The fatty acids do not make the paper in the least greasy, but they injure the transpa- rency. China wax has almost too high a melting point, and gives a crystalline structure to the paper. Spermaceti also is too crystalline. Paraffin, ethal, and the waxes, produce very good
, &.; the presence of a little spe does not much interfere, but as its price differs little fro n that of pure wax, it is not so common an adulteration as the other cheaper substances. .
3. It will be unsafe to use the wax in the form of round thin tablets, about 4 inches in diameter, in which it is usually met — with, as in this state it is generally adulterated to the extent of — at least 50 per cent. . | a : "Asan article of commerce, it is next to impossible to obtain small quantities of wax sufficiently pure to be reliec upon. The only way I can recommend is to apply to one of the well known large bleachers, and trust to them for supplying the arti- cle ina state of purity. Whenever I have found it necessary to make such applications, my request has always been acceded to in the most cordial manner, and every information has been given with the utmost readiness. oe
24. The other chemicals, (with the exception of the strong nitric acid, which any retail druggist will supply, and the wa which had best be distilled on the premises,) should be order direct from some manufacturing chemist, as otherwise, unless operator have a sufficient knowledge of chemistry to be able to detect any inferiority, there is danger of not having the article sufficiently pure. ee eee eee,
The iodid and bromid of potassium should be ordered purified
The nitrate of silver should be crystallized, not in sticks; i ought to be perfectly dry, and have no smell, acid or otherwise. There are usually two varieties of glacial acetic acid to be met
; the purest must be used; it should be perfectly free from
oat
ae
the:
W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 167
any empyreumatic odor, and must cause no turbidity when mixed with a solution of nitrate of silver, e. g.in making the exciting bath (42). _ The gallic acid should be as nearly white in color as possible. Especial care should be taken to have the alcohol ood ; it should be 60° over proof, and of ney gravity 0°83. On evap- orating a few drops on the palm of the hand, no smell should be left behind, nor should it, under the same circumstances, leave any stain on a sheet of white spree _ 26. The hyposulphite of soda will be found one of the articles
most difficult to obtain pure; there is a large quantity at present.
in the market, having little else of the salt but the name, and is of course totally unfit for use; if there be the least doubt about its purity, it should be tested in the following manner :—
eigh out accurately 10 grains of, nitrate of silver, dissolve this in half an ounce of distilled water; then add 4 grains of ehlorid of sodium (common salt) also dissolved in water. On mixing these two solutions together, a white curdy precipitate of. chlorid of silver will fall down. .N ext add 22 grains of the hy- posulphite of soda, and allow it to stand for about ten minutes, stir :
less amount of residue will
urity.
nerally all the sheets lie in the same direction, therefore it is only necessary to ascertain that the smooth side of one of them is uppermost, and then draw a pencil once or twice along the exposed edges. : , 28. The paper has now to be saturated with white wax.. The apparatus br this purpose has been previously described (11.) ne eax is to be made perfectly liquid, and then the sheets of ‘Paper, taken up singly and held by one end, are gradually low-
—
168 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. ereihi on to the fluid. As soon as the wax is ee which
= bee] re) rg Tm a | ro) # “a bo J > $ = PS) = pe = 5 ieje) 5 He . a8e oe a on 3 tr z Eee &
29. The paper i in this stage will contain far more wax than _ necessary; the excess may be removed, by placing the sheets singly between inintiiiee paper (14), and i ironing them; but this
is wasteful, and the loss may be avoided by placing on ‘each side of the waxed sheet two or three sheets of unwaxed eee oe oe Pal r, and then ironing the whole between blotting paper; t
generally be enough wax on the centre sheet to wervolball fully those next to it on each side, and partially, if not entirely, the others. Those that are imperfectly waxed may be made the | outer sheets of the succeeding set. Finally, each — must be separately ironed between blotting paper, until patches of wax are absorbed.
30. It is of the utmost consequence that the tempers vu the iron should not exceed that of boiling water. Before using, — I always dip it into water until the hissing entirely ceases. This
poeta lick to the ehe of this plo gravelly appearance, or are of smoothness in the: lights, and quick rage cs in the ae solution. B31. A well waxed sheet of paper, when viewed by obliquel: reflected light, ought to amo a perfectly uniform glazed ance on one side, while the other should be rather duller; th must be no shining patches on any part of the surface, nor should any irregularities be observed on examining the paper with a black ground placed behind; seen by tranamnted A h it will appear opalescent, but there should be no appreae toa granular structure. sone alien sheets is slight!)
82. The e paper, h ng undergone on tag 10 is ready for ‘odiing ; thie is effected ete pletely pine crsing it in an aqueous solution of an alkaline iodid, either Yeio-er mieed with some analogous _— .
* These spots have been analyzed by Mr Mt Malone; pete them to consist, not ‘pte
of iron, as is generally su but of small pieces of brass. I have ined thera myself with a like result.
: W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 169
B : i fa : : fa ta : : a i
iodid of silver per se was the best sensitive surface for receiving 4m image in the Camera; but on making use of that body in __ these operations, (by employing pure iodid of potassium in the _ bath,) I was surprised to meet with results, for which I was at first unable to account. A little consideration, however, showed ‘me the direction in which I was to look for a remedy. The ex- periments which had led me to prefer iodid of silver as a sensi- tive surface, had all been performed with sunlight, either direct, or more frequently in the form of diffused daylight. In this case, however, coal gas was the source of light; and if, as was _ very probable, there were any great difference in the quality of _ the light from these two sources, the superiority of iodid over the bromid or chlorid of silver would still be a matter for ex- 3 nd + ,
- periment. Z ____ 384A comparison of the spectra of the two kinds of light
a : en . . _ Sitions were fully borne out by experiment: on introducing a little bromid of potassium into the i bath
potassium + odizing bath, the change was
very apparent. It requires a certain proportion to be observed between the two to obtain the best results. If the iodid of potassium be in excess, the resulting silver salt will be wanti in sensitiveness, requiring a comparatively long development to render an image visible; while, if the bromid be in excess, there will be a great want of vigor in the impression, the picture being red and transparent. When the proportion between the two is properly adjusted, the paper will be extremely sensitive, the pecatite. presenting a vigorous black SPpeArsnag without the least approach to cutee addition of a chlorid was found to
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII. NO. 65,—SEPT., 1856, 22
170 W. Crookes on the War-paper Photographic Process.
roduce @ ee similar effect to that of a bromid, butina ~ ion marked degree. As no particular advantage could be traced
to it, it was not employe 4
t ve also tried most of the different forms of organie ; matter, thal it is customary to add to this bath, but I cannot — recommend th em; the most that can be said is, that some of them do no harm. At first I thought a little isinglass might be — an improvement, as it instantly removes the greasiness from the _ surface of the paper, and allows the iodid of potassium to pene- trate more readily. Unfortunately, however, it interferes with the most important property of this process, that of remaining
ime. 4
36. I think the best results are obtained, when the jodid and 7 bromid are mixed in the proportion of their atomic weights; the ~ strenzth being as follows: J
Todid of potassium . : ; 582°5 grains, Bromid of potassium : . 417°5 grains. Dare Wate Se 40 ounces.*
When the two salts have dissolved in the water, the mixture : should be filtered; the bath will then be fit for use A 87. At first, a slight difficulty will be felt in immersing ‘the waxed sheets in the liquid without enclosing air bubbles, the
the best way is to hold the paper by one end, and gradually to bring it down on to the liquid, commencing at the other end; the paper ought not to slant towards the surface of the bath, or _ there will be danger of enclosing air bubbles; but while it is being laid down, the part out of the liquid should be kept as nearly as possible perpendicular to the surface of the liquid; any — curling up of the sheet when first laid down, may be prevented by breathing on it gently: In about ten minutes, the sheet ought to be lifted up by one corner, and turned over in the sam manner; a slight agitation of the dish will then throw the ee a over that “sheet, and another can be treate c mann
38. “Tho sheets must remain soaking in this bath for about 4 three hours; several times during that interval, (and especially if there be many sheets in the same bath,) they ought to moved about and turned over singiys to allow of the liquid :
+ While giving the above as the calculated “rt I do mt to tt q upon their being adhered to with any extreme accura oe . 4 dieediiens side would I believe be without any percepti eon thea a
W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 171 : room, and hooking the papers on to this by means of a pin bent _ into the shape of the letter S. After a sheet has been hung up for a few minutes, a oo of blotting paper, about one Ps square, should be stuck to the bottom corner to absorb the drop, and prevent its drying on the sheet, or it would cause a stain in the picture.
39. While the sheets are drying, they should be looked at occasionally, and the way in which the liquid on the surface dries, noticed; if it collect in drops all over the surface, it is a sign that the sheets have not been sufficiently acted on by the iodizing bath, owing to their having been removed from the latter too soon. The sheets will usual ly during drying assume a dirty pink appearance, owing probably to the liberation of iodine by ozone in the air, and its subsequent combination with the starch and wax in the paper. This is by no means a bad sign, if the color be at all uniform; but if it appear in patches and a it shows that there has been some irregular a sorption of the wax, or defect in the iodizing, and it will be as well to reject sheets so marked. .
. As soon as the sheets are quite dry, they can be put aside in a box for use ata future time. There is a great deal of un- certainty as regards the length of time the sheets may be kept in this state without spoiling; I can speak from experience as to there being no sensible deterioration after a lapse of ten months, but further than this I have not tried.
Up to this stage, it is immaterial whether the operations have been performed by daylight or not; but the subsequent treat- Ment, until the fixing of the picture, must be done by yellow
t (0). “41. The next step consists in rendering the iodized paper sen- _ Sitive to light. Although, when extreme care is taken in this _ Operation, it is hardly of any Sop bec when this is performed;
‘et in practice, it will not be foun convenient to excite the paper earlier than about a fortnight before its being required for use. The materials for the exciting bath are nitrate of silver, glacial acetic acid, and water. Some operators replace the acetic acid _ by tartaric acid; but as I cannot perceive the effect of this hange except in a diminution of sensitiveness, I have not adopted it. It is of little importance what be the strength of the solu- tion of nitrate of silver; the disadvantages of a weak solution are, that the sheets require to remain in contact with it for a con- siderable time before the decomposition is effected, and the bath
aires oftener renewing ; while witha bath which is too strong, time is equally lost in the long-continued washing requisite to enable the paper to keep good for any length of time. The quantity of acetic acid is also of little consequence.
172 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process.
Sie ges an eee
42. In the following bath, I have endeavored so to adjust the rtion of nitrate of silver, as to avoid as much as possible Poth the inconveniences mentioned above, Nitrate of silver . : j ; 800 grains. Glacial acetic acid ; : . 2 drachms. Distilled water The nitrate of silver and acetic acid are to be added to the water, and when dissolved, filtered into a clean dish (10), taking care that the bottom of the dish be flat, and that the liquid cover it to s de th of at least half an inch all over; by the side of this, be: nila dishes must be placed, each containing distilled
Re ne ee ee >
rs "A sheet of iodized paper is to be taken by one end, and gradually lowered, the marked side downwards, on to to the exci- ting solution, taking eare that no liquid gets on to the back, and no air bubbles are enclosed. It will be necessary for the sheet to remain on this bath from five to ten minutes; but it can generally be known when the operation is completed by the change in appearance, the pink color entirely disappearing, and the sheet assuming a ne homo- geneous straw color. When this is the case, one of it must be raised up by the platinum spatula, lifted out “of be dish with rather a quick movement, allowed to drain for about half a — minute, and then floated on the surface of the water in the second dish, while another iodized sheet is placed on the nitrate of silver solution ; when this has remained on fora sufficient time, it — must be in ike manner: transferred to the oe: of distilled water, — removed the previous sheet to the n y third iodized sheet can now be excited, ead when this is sainlitett the one first excited must be rubbed erfectly dry between folds of clean blotting paper (14), wra up in clean r, and preserved in a portfolio until required for use; an the others can be transferred a dish forward, as before , taking care that each sheet be washed twice in distilled water, and that. at every fourth sheet the dishes of washing water be emptied, and replenished with clean distilled water ; poh water should —_ be thrown “ne but preserved in a bottle fora subsequeay operation (49 i 45. The x quantity of the exciting bath, will be fou : quite — to excite about fifty sheets of the size here em ig 3000 Ss ise inches of paper. After the —_ Foon
Pe mE Le ag SR IN ee TIE Oe nd ND Ce Rae meee
sens
ness. Generally, mrifibient attention is 9 pone to this oink
It should a borne in mind, that an amount the paper were only exposed to its action for a
46. Experience alone can tell the proper time to expose. the Sensitive paper to the action of light, in order to obtain the best effects. However, it will be useful to remember, that it is almost always possible, however short the time of exposure, to obtain some trace of effect by prolonged development. Varyi
# be Be ae
An improvement on the ordinary method of developing with gallic acid, formed the subject of a communication to the Philo- sophical Magazine for March, 1855, where I recommend the employment of a strong alcoholic solution of gallic acid, to be dilluted with water when required for use, as being more econo-
_ mical both of time and trouble than the preparation of a great “quantity of an aqueous solution for each operation. ~ 8, The-solution is thus made: put two ounces of crystallized
gallic acid into a dry flask with a narrow neck; over this poms _ 81x ounces of good alcohol, (60° over proof,) and place the flask
in hot water until the acid is Sroclnea or nearly so. This will not take long, especially if it be well shaken once or twice. __ Allow it to cool, then add half a drachm of glacial acetic acid,
_ and filter the whole into a stoppered bottle.
_ 49, The developing solution which I employ for one set of sheets, or 180 square inches, is prepared by aoneg together ten ounces of the water that has been previously for washing the excited papers (44), and four drachms of the exhausted exei-
_ ting bath (45); the mixture is then filtered into a perfectly clean dish, and half a drachm of the above alcoholic solution of gallic acid poured into it. dish > shaken about until the
greasy appearance has quite gone from the surface; and then the sheets of paper may be laid down on the solution in the ordinary Manner with the marked side downwards, taking particular care that none of the solution gets on the back of the paper, or it will
E 3
174 W. Crookes on the Waz-paper Photographic Process.
cause a stain. Should this happen, either dry it with blotting paper, or immerse the sheet entirely in the liquid.
50. If the paper has been exposed to a moderate light, the picture will begin to appear within five minutes of its being laid on the solution, and will be finished in a few hours, however sometimes be requisite, if the light has been feeble, to prolong the development for a day or more. If the dish be per- fectly clean, the developing solution will remain active for the whole of this time, and when used only for a few hours, will be
cuikee appearance indicates the presence of dirt. The progress of the development may be watched, by gently raising one cor-
of producing stains on the surface of the picture. I prefer allowing the development to go on, until the black is rather
yellow iodid of silver has been dissolved out. This operation — need not be performed by yellow light; daylight is oe bettter |
for shewing whether the picture be entirely fixed. This will take from a quarter of an hour to two hours, according to the time the bath has been in use.
It will be well not to put too many sheets into the bath at once, in order to avoid the necessity of turning them over to allow the liquid to penetrate every part. ts
When fixed, the sheet if held up between the light and the eye, will present a pure transparent appearance in the white
The fixing bath gradually becomes less and less active by use, and then its action is very energetic on the dark parts of the picture, attacking and dissolving them equally with the un- — changed iodid. When this is the case it sould be put on one side, (not thrown away,) and a fresh bath made. ai!
53. After removal from the fixing bath, the sheets must be well washed. In this operation, the effect depends more upon — the quantity of water used, than upon the duration of the immer: _
W. Crookes on the Waz-paper. Photographic Process. 175
sion. When practicable it is a good plan to allow water from a tap to flow over the sheets for a minute or two, and having thus
54. They are then to be dried by hanging up by a crooked pin, as after iodizing. When dry, they will present a very rough and granular appearance in the transparent.parts; this is removed by melting the wax, either before a fire, or, what is far better, by placing them between blotting paper, and passing a warm iron over them; by this means, the white parts will re- cover their original transparency.
containing any remarkable phenomena. [ will therefore now detail the method of printing photographie positives from these hegatives, premising that the process Hy
m that usually acidpted
oes not differ materially
l t
as the quantity required is but small, it will perhaps be found “better to obtain aalt
along with the
4 The chlorid of gold is merely required for an artistic effect. ‘Many persons object to the reddish brown appearance of ordi-
nary photographic positives; the addition of a little chlorid of old to the fixing bath converts this into a rich brown or black ; the trifling quantity required removes any objection to its use on the score of expense, oo. a 58. I prefer using the same kind of paper for positives as for negatives (20). Messrs Canson n nufacture a thicker paper, which is generally called positive aper, but I think the thin is *»
“
176 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process.
Pee es
far preferable; the + aE is smoother, and the various solutions _ Po much bette :
59. e first piretibe which the paper has to undergo is :
‘oii the bath for this purpose consists of Chlorid of sodium ee <. S100 piaing Distilled water. 40 ounces.
Filter this into a clean dish, andl completely i immerse the sheets, marked as directed (27). This is best done ‘by laying them gently on the surface of the liquid, and then pressing them under — by passing a glass rod over them; as many sheets as the dish — will hold may be thus immersed one after the other. Allow — them to soak for about ten minutes, then lift and turn them over — in a body; afterwards they may be hung up to dry (38), com- mencing with the sheet which was first put in, When dry, they ; may be taken down and put aside for use at any future time. The sheets in drying generally curl up very much; it will there- fore be found convenient in the next i aa if the salted sheets,
before being put away, have been allowed to remain in the pressure is tight, for about 24 Bours This makes them — ese ae othe os exciting bath is st eis of ws. Nitrate of silver . ‘ . 150 grains. : psa Water. 10 ounces. tering, ge ase: polntion into a clean dish; and seat :
likely to be required in the course of a ll for they gradually turn brown by keeping, even in the dark, and lose sensitiveness. They will, however, keep much better, if — tight in the ressure frame, and thus protected from the : 62. When a positive is to be printed Ranta a aieuaee let the glass of the pressure frame be perfectly cleansed and free from dust on both sides, then lay the negative on it, with its back to the glass. On it place a sheet of positive paper, with its sensi- tive side down. Then, having placed over, as a pad, several sheets of blotting paper, screw the back down with sufficient force to press the two. it 80 as to sighed the
7
Gi - anether
W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 17
63. No rule can be laid down for the proper time of exposure; it will depend upon the uality of the light, and intensity of the negative; some pictures ing completed in a few minutes, others requiring upwards of half an hour. The printing should always
Saturated solution of hyposulphite of soda 10 ounces. Water ee ear ee This bath will be found to fix the pictures perfectly, but they will generally be of a reddish tint ; if it.be thought desirable to obtain the pictures of some shade of dark brown, or black, it will be necessary to employ a bath made as follows ; Saturated solution of hyposulphite of soda 10 ounces. PW ae : : ; : : : ounces, Exhausted positive exciting solution (61) 10 ounces.
_ Mix these together and then add the following ;
Water ; : ; : cee 10 ounces, RISER OT BONES 4-.s eey ork Te gD grains; taking care in mixing to pour the solution of gold into the solu- on of hyposulphite, and not the latter into the former, or | er decomposition will be produ - Pour this mixture into a dish, and lay the positive carefully
on it, face downwards. As soon as it is thoroughly damp, _ (which may be known by its becoming 2 gd flat after having
time, When first put in, the color will change to a light brown, and in the course of some time, varying from ten minutes to two
bath for ten minutes at least in ord t it may be perfectly
SECOND SERIES, Vou. XXIl, NO. 65.——SEPT., 1856, 23
178 W. Crookes on the Waz-paper Photographic Process.
fixed. After this time, its stay need only be prolonged until it has become of the desired tone and color; always remembering, that during the subsequent operation of drying, &c., it will — become of a somewhat darker tint than when taken out of the fixing bath. | 66. On removal from this bath, the pictures must be allowed to soak in a large quantity of cold water for ten or twelve hours, There must not be very many in the dish at atime, and the water must be changed at least three times during that interval; they must then have boiling water poured over them (of course — in a porcelain dish) two or three times, and lastly pressed dry, between sheets of clean blotting Paper (14), (these may be used several times, if dried,) and then allowed to dry spontaneously © in the air. When the pressure frame is not in use, a pile of these — finished positives may be put in, and kept tightly screwed up all night; by this means they will be rendered perfectly flat and smooth. 67. The picture is now complete. It must be borne in mind, — however, that the light and shade are reversed by this operation, — the track of the luminous image along the paper being repre- sented by a white instead of by a black band, as in the original — negative. Should it be desired to produce exact facsimiles of — the negatives, it can be done by employing one of these positives — as a negative, and printing other positives from it; in this way, the light and shade having been twice reversed, will be the same as in the original negative. 68. In some cases it may happen, that owing to a partial failure of gas, or imperfection in the sensitive sheet, an image may be so faint as to render it impossible to print a distinct posi- tive. The gap that this would produce in a set of pictures may
Chega cas ere ee
co e. ro) we a ° =) 3 & <4 oO . aa! fo) tear) © i=) ey peal > o =| 2. < = e. fe} =
this piece to the light until it has become perfectly opaque, a then it can either b igi >
*
¥ ar ip
J. W. Mallet on a Zeolitic Mineral. 179
Art. XIV.—On @ Zeolitic mineral (allied to Stilbite) from the Isle of Skye, Scotland; by J. W. Matter, Ph.D.
THE specimen to which the following description refers has een in my ion for several years, and has attached to it a
label bearing the name “ Hypostilbite,” but analysis shows it to be a mineral quite distinct from Beudant's hypostilbite of the Faroe Islands, and differing also from both stilbite proper and epistilbite.
Tt occurs as a mass of minute crystals, resembling white loaf sugar, breaking easily, and crushing under the fingers into a coarsish crystalline powder. The Separate grains viewed under the microscope appear as single prismatic crystals or little groups of three or four, nearly transparent, colorless, and with a pearly lustre, especially on two opposite faces,—closely resembling stil- bite in fact in general appearance,
The crystalline form could not be satisfactorily made out, but seemed to be monoclinic. Hardness a little greater than that of calcite. Specific gravity =2-252. ;
trong muriatic acid poured over the pulverized mineral at night had the next morning formed a distinct jelly.
On analysis the following results were obtain
Atoms.
RR es y.as bic.y daeest exis 63°95 = 1:191—3 Ps eu crk ca ox: 40 0c: 20°18 "892—1 ices re, cay. chaos 12°86 ‘459—L‘17
ok oy 66.6 cesses wk ss ce Potash (with a little soda), .... ‘87
OO 2s keine 00. ee ee 12°42. 1:380—3-52
100°28 Neglecting the small quantity of alkali, these numbers lead us nearly to the formula, - &(CaO, SiO s)+2(AlaOa, 28i03)+7H0, which differs completely from that of stilbite, CaO, SiO;+Als Os, 3SiOs + 6HO, or that of epistilbite, CaO, SiO. + AlzOs,
83i0:+5HO. The percentage of water is also far too small for
hypostilbite. sie 3 The mineral appears to be a distinct one, and does not seem to have resulted from the gradual decomposition or change of any other; but it is perhaps scarcely desirable to add to the already numerous names of stilbite-like minerals by adopting a hew one for this substance until additional analyses of these
nearly related species shall permit of their more accurate classi-
180 R. Clausius on the Application of the
TR ee eee pee
Art, XV.—On the Application of the wore acheory of Heat to the Steam Engine; by R. CLA
[Translated for this Journal from Pogg. Ann. xcviii, 441, by W. G.]*
1. As the change in our views on the nature and relations of heat which is now comprised under the name of the “mechan- ical theory of heat,” had its origin in the recognized fact that heat may be emplo ed in producing mechanical work, we might a@ priori expect that, conversely, the theory which was ‘originated — in this way would contribute to put this application of heat ina — eas light. In particular the more general points of view ob- —
in this way should render it possible to form a certain — judgment on the particular machines which serve for this appli- — cation, whether they already perfectly answer their purpose, or — whether, and how far, eeey are susceptible of improvement. 4
To these principles, which hold good for all thermodynamic — machines, there are to be added for the most important of them— — the steam engine—some particular ones which incite us to submit it to a new investigation deduced from the mechanical theory of © heat. Some im 5 ere deviations from the laws which were | formerly assum correct, or at least applied in calculation, — nite been found to “hold good precisely for steam at its maximum
ensity. a
ee ee eee ee
ue i : '
2. In this particular I believe that I must first remind the ~ reader that it has been proved by Rankine and myself, that when : q a quantity of steam, originally at its maximum density, expands — in a shell which is impermeable to heat, by pushing back with its _ full expansive force a movable portion of the shell, as for in- — stance a piston, a portion of the steam must be Lea as
reasonin q Furthermore, in the want of accurate knowledge, it was for- q merly assumed, in determining the volume of the unit of weight | of saturated steam at different temperatures, that steam even at | its maximum density still obeys the laws of Mariotte and Gay Lussac. In opposition to this I have already shewn in my first memoir on this subject,t that we may calculate the volumes which a unit of weight of steam assumes at different temperatures at its maximum density, from the fundamental principles of the me-— ’ chanical theory of hea by means of the collateral assumption, — that a permanent gas when ut expands at a constant temperature ab- * The importance of this memoir induces us to ave it My = instead of ate a dos machines & repel. por ta Come VEC M.G.d Pi Pasco Paris, 1844. : ’ ie 3
t Pogg. Ann., Ixxix, 36 Pepe j
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 181
sorbs only so much heat as ts consumed in doing the external work ormed, and that we find in this way many values which, at the higher temperatures at least, deviate considerably from the laws of Gay Lussac and Mariotte. : is view of the behavior of steam was not shared at that e even by authors who occupied themselves specially with the mechanical theory of heat. W. Th tested the point. He found—even a year later in a memoir laid
to test the correctness of this assumption experimentally. They have in fact found by a series of well devised experiments con- ducted upon a large scale, that the assumption is so nearly correct for the permanent gases examined by them, namely, atmospheric air and hydrogen, that the variations may in most calculations be neglected. They found, however, greater variations for the non- permanent gas, carbonic acid, which they also studied. This corresponds entirely with the remark, which I added to the first mention of the assumption, that it is noe true for every gas
Mariotte and Gay
_ Lussac find their application to the same gas. In consequence of these experiments, Foctioon has now also calculated the volume of saturated steam in the same way as myself. I believe there- fore that the correctness of this mode of calculation will gradu-
ally be more and more fully recognized by other physicists also, 3. These two examples will suffice to shew that the fundamen- tal principles of the former theory of the steam engine have undergone such important changes through the mechanical the-
ory of heat that a new investigation of the subject is n ; e present memoir I have made the attempt to develop the
tainly well worthy of consideration—to apply steam in an over- heated state
In setting forth this investigation I shall only suppose as known my last published memoir* “On an form of the second principal theorem of the mechanical theory of heat.” It is true that it will in this way be necessary to deduce a second time in a somewhat different manner some results which are no longer new, but which were obtained at an earlier period by other writers or by myself; I believe however, that this repetition will be justi- fied by the greater unity and clearness of the whole.
I shall refer in the proper places to the papers in which these tesults were first communicated, as far as they are known to me.
* Pogg. Ann., xciii, 481.
182 R. Clausius on the Application of the
4. The expression that heat drives a machine, is of course not to be immediately referred to the heat, but is to be understood as signifying that some substance present in the machine, in conse- quence of the changes which it undergoes by heat, sets the parts. of the machine in motion, We will call this substance the heat- utilizing substance (den die Wirkung der Warme vermittelnden Sto
If now a continually acting machine be in uniform action, all the changes which occur take place gctgmapch 2 so that the same condition in which the machine, with all its single parts, is found — at a particular time, regularly recurs at equal intervals. Conse- |
uently the heat-utilizing substance must be present in the ma- chine in equal quantity at such regularly recurring instants and — must be in a similar condition, This condition may be fulfilled — in two different ways. :
In the first place, one and the same quantity of this substance _ originally existing in the machine may always remain in it, in — which case the changes of condition which the substance under- —
in practice. It occurs, for instance, in the caloric air machines constructed up to the present time, inasmuch as after every stroke — the air which has moved the piston in the cylinder is driven into — the atmosphere, and an equal quantity of air is supplied from the - atmosphere, through the feeding cylinder. The same is the case > — re ae without condensers in which the steam A
om the cylinder into the atmosphere, while, to supply its place, — o —_ portion of water is pumped from a anton me
iler. ‘@ Furthermore, at least a partial application is also made in
s
Ee which are worked by two different vapors, as for instance y Water and the vapor of ether. In these the steam is con- densed only by contact with the metallic tubes which are inter:
eT 1 Oe es Se
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 188
nally filled with liquid ether and is then completely pumped _ back into the boiler. In like manner the ether vapor is con-
to keep up a uniform action, therefore, it is only necessary to add as much water or ether as escapes through the joints from
imperfections in the construction 6. In a machine of this kind in which the same mass is always
This is the case with steam engines with condensers, in which the water is thrown out from the condenser in the liquid state, and with the same temperature with which it passed from the condenser into the boiler.*
_ In other machines the condition at the exit is different from that at the entrance. The caloric air machines, for instance, even when they are provided with regenerators, force the air into the atmosphere with a. higher temperature than it previously had, and the steam engines without condensers take up the water asa
be completed for the purpose of investigation, we aa apply to all thermo-dynamic machines the theorems which hol
* The cooling water which passes into the condenser cold and out of it warm, is not hove: takes into consideration, since it does not belong to the heat-utilizing substance, but serves only as a negative source of heat.
184 R. Ciausius on the Application of the
have represented in my former memoir the two principal cesapaa ivhioks hold good for every circular process, by the fol- lowing equations.
(1 Q@=— A.W
(n) /e=-™
in which the letters have the same signification as they have there; namely—
A is the equivalent of heat for the unit of work.
Q sipuiics t the external work done during the — process,
eat mene to the changea y dur- ing the circular process, and d Q an oo of the aati by which a quantity of heat en fi from the bod y is considered as negative communicated heat. The integral of the second equation ex- — tends over the whole quantity Q.
T’ is a function of the temperature which the variable bod has at the moment at which it takes up the element of heat d 0, or, should this body have different temperatures in its different — parts, of the temperature of the part which takes up dQ. am the form of the function 7, I have shewn in my previous memoir _ that it is probably nothing else than the temperature eer, when © this is estimated from the point which is determined by the Ter g ciprocal value of the coefficient of expansion of an ale 3
—278°
Ref ge ea ge ae eet ee ee
aes
(1) T=273+2 ae In future I shall employ the magnitude 7 always with this sig- nification, and call it briefly the absolute te temperature, remark- | ing however that the conclusions arrived at do not in their essence depend upon this comcaae but remain valid even =
* A ies of t her sources of heat which are to communicate heat to the vatlabie — st ures than this last, and conversely those which ar municate + to it negative heat, or to take sitet heat from it, must have lower te erates At every excl of hea: een the variable body and a source o is an immediate of heat nite a body of a higher tem a Par ae a swede ts temperature, and herein lies an uncompensated transformation which is so — the
a special notice. The: = oe
into pevailornsien te eee in ¥ or not, — as we attribute to the temperature occurring in equation (i1). If we paces re ; this the temperature of the source of heat belonging to the element dQ, these trans-
mations are included in NV, If however we understand by it as is above deter- mined, and as it will be understood in this whole memoir e temperature of the — variable body, these transformations are excluded from Nv Furthermore a remark —
= ae oe ee re eee
Mechanical’ Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 185
verted, then uncompensated transformations have come into play, and the magnitude N has an assignable value, which how-
streams from one vessel, in which it was under a greater pres- ; this
__ Many cases of interest to know how much each single one of _ the last has contributed to the production of the whole sum of uncompensated transformations. For this purpose imagine that the mass, after the change in condition ahich we wish in this way to investigate, is brought back by any invertable process to its original condition. In this way we obtain a small circular
up during the same, and the temperatures belonging to it, the negative integral — -[' sa gives the uncompensated change which has occurred in it. Now as the restoration which has taken place in an invertable manner can have contributed nothing to
egat ecause it is lost for urce of heat, here on th r hs is consid- ered as positive. All the elements of heat contained in the integral ot ee their sign, and with them at the same time the whole integral, consequently in order that the equation should remain correct notwithstanding the change, it was neces- sary he sign on the other side also.
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXIJ, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1956, 24
*
186 R. Clausius on the Application of the
vertable. i 9. If we now apply equations (1) and (11) to the circular pro- cess which takes place in the thermo-dynamic machine during a — riod, we see in the first place that if the whole 5 pret of | beat which the mediating substance has taken up during this — time is given, then the work is also determined immediately by i he first equation, without its being necessary to know the nature q of the processes themselves of which the circular process con- — sists. In similar generality we may, by the combination of the two equations, determine the work from other data also, 4 We will assume that the quantities of heat which the variable body receives one after the other, as well as the temperatures which it has at the reception of each, are given, and that there i only one temperature over and above, whose magnitude is not known @ priort, at which a quantity of heat is still communi ted to, or, if it be negative, taken from, the body. Let the s of all the known quantities of heat be Q,, and the unknow
Then resolve the integral in equation (II) into two parts, 0 which one extends only over the known quantity of heat Q,, and the other over the unknown quantity Q,. In the last part the | integration may be directly executed, since 7’ has in it a constant value 7',, and gives the expression a
Q
—
= The equation (11) becomes hereby Qi dQ Vo _ i oe aes
whence sisws "
Qi Q.=-7,.f Oe aes
o u Further we have according to equation (1), as, for our case, = Q.+ Qo: ;
1 — W= 7(@.4Q)- ee a substitute in this equation for Q, the value just found, we
_* Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 187
Qy ’ 1 d (2) W=5 (0-7, f B-7,.m), If we assume specially that the whole circular process is inverta- Mei according to the above N=0, and the foregbinig equation ecomes
We Le,-2,.f 9)
‘ 0 This expression is only distinguished from the previous one by the term —-—°. WN. Since WV can only be positive this term can
when the whole circular process is invertable, and that the quan- ‘tity of work is diminished by every circumstance which causes one of the special processes occurring in the cireular process to be uninvertable.
Equation (2) leads accordingly to the sought value of the work in a manner which is directly opposed to the usual one, inasmuch as we do not, as formerly, determine singly the quantities of work performed during the different processes and then add them together, but set out from the maximum work, and subtract from it the losses of heat which have arisen from the single incom- plete parts of the process.
If we make the limiting condition with respect to the commu- nication of the heat that the whole quantity of heat Q, is com- municated to the body at a determined temperature 7’,, the
rtion of the integration embracing this quantity of heat may
at once Sxevuted, and gives 1
1 by which equation (3), which holds good for the maximum of the work, talkes the following form, sa Q, T 1-7
| (4) Wa di
In this special form the equation was already deduced by W. Thomson and Rankine from the combination of Carnot’s theo- rem, modified by me, with the theorem of the equivalence of
-. heat and work.*
10. Before we can pass from these considerations, which hold good for all thermo-dynamic machines, to the treatment of the steam engine, some remarks with respect to the behavior of va- pors at a maximum density must first be brought forward.
* Phil. Mag., July, 1851.
188 _ R. Clausius on the Application of the
I have already in my former paper of 1850, on the motive power of heat, developed the equations which represent the two
incipal theorems of the mechanical theory of heat in their ap- plications to vapors at a maximum density, and have applied them to deduce various conclusions.
As I have however introduced in my last memoir “on a change in the form of the second principal theorem of the me- chanical theory of heat,” a somewhat different mode of repre- senting the whole subject, I consider it, as already mentioned, more advantageous for the sake of greater simplicity and breadth of view, to sup only this last memoir as known. : therefore again deduce in a different way the equations referred to from the results obtained in it.
In this memoir it was assumed, in order to apply the general | equations first established to a somewhat more special case, that — the only foreign force acting upon the variable body which de-
rves consideration in determining the external work, was an ~
external pressure, the force of which was equal at all points of the surface, and whose direction was every where perpendicular — to it, and that further this pressure always changed only so — slowly, and consequently was at every instant only so little dif — ferent from the expansive force of the body acting opposite to it, that in calculation the two might be considered as equal. If then we denote by p the pressure, by v the volume, cide T the — absolute temperature of the body, which last we will introduce | into the formulas instead of the temperature as estimated from — the freezing point, because they take a simpler form in this way, — this be acakinlibek: a
jules
the equations deduced for
d (dQ\_ a (dQ\_, dp oy AS) £(8)aadt dQ dp (rv) ds =A.T or
case of vapors at a maximum density, 11. Let the given mass of the substance whose vapor is to be ~ considered be M, and let this be contained in a completely closed extensible vessel, the part m in a state of vapor, and the re- _ maining part, M—m, in a fluid state. This mixed mass is now to form the variable body to which the previous equations are to be applied. sigs a If the temperature 7’ of the mass and its volume v—that is — to say, the content of the vessel—are given, then the condition — of the mass, so far as it here comes under consideration, is thereby —
completely determined. Since ome the vapor by supposition always remains in contact with the liquid, and consequently at a maximum density; its condition, as well as that of the liquid, —
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 189
depends only on the temperature 7 It only remains to decide whether the quantity of the two parts which are present in dif- ferent conditions is determined. For this purpose the condition is given, that these two parts must together exactly fill up the content of the vessel. we therefore denote the volume of the unit of weight of steam, at its maximum density, at the tempera- sare T by s, and that of a unit of weight of fluid by o, we must ave:
v=m.s+(M—m)e =m(s—o)+ Mo, The quantity s occurs in what follows, only in the combination (s—<), and we will therefore introduce a special letter for this difference, putting
uUu=s—9, by which the previous equation becomes 6) | v=mu+M, and hence i (7) m= RBA :
sac : m : | By this equation, m is determined as a function of 7 and », since u and o are functions of 7. :
12. In order now to be able to apply equations (111) _ o our case, we must first determine the quantities Ty nd oH
Let us first assume that the vessel expands so much that its
content increases by dv, then a quantity of heat must be thereb communicated to the mass, which will in general, be represented b 404
vy or V. Now since this quantity of heat is only consumed in the forma- tion of vapor which takes ~~ during the ee ee it may also be represented, if the heat of ev be denoted for the unit of mass by 7, by the expression
pay and we may also put dQ dm
“dv dv
whence, since according to (7), dm
we find (8) Toa’ Tf we assume in the‘second Ree that the ‘temperature of the mass, while the content of the vessel remains constant, is in-
*
190 R. Clausius on the Application of the
creased by d7, the quantity of heat necessary, will be repre- sented generally by
dQ a? dT. This quantity of heat consists of three portions—1. The fluid portion, 4—m of the whole mass, must be warmed by d 7, for
which purpose, if c denotes the specific heat of the liquid, the ares of heat (M—m)cd T is necessary. The portion m in the state of vapor must in like manner be ‘amen by dT, but will thereby at the same time be so much mpressed, th at for the increased temperature T+d 7, it is arte at a maximum density. The quantity of heat ‘which must be communicated toa unit of mass of vapor during its compression, in order that it shall have at every density pre- cisely the temperature for which this density is a maximum, we shall denote for an increase of temperature of d 7, in general by T in which h is a magnitude which is previously unknown as to its value, and even as to itssign. The quantity of heat neces- sary for our case, will hence be en mhd % 3. In the process of heating, a small ciiasttiey of the previously - fluid portion, passes into the state of vapor, whith is Tep
generally by a7 Re pe J, and which consumes the quantity of heat
PES Ss AY ae
m du _M do —s - ‘ av ee . “ale ¥. If we add these three quantities of heat together, and Pat their sum equal to aoa T we have "3 Q r r du (9) wa (5 a) m(h— o-<. 77 + d dQ a 13. The first of these expressions for ic and —~, must now
aT” : also, as is signified in equation (rI1), be y ee the first 4 with respect to 7; and the last with respect tov. If we co : moreover that the quantity J is constant, the quantities u,% 7,
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 191
cand h, only functions of 7, and the quantity m only a function of Zand v we obtain
d (dQ 1 dr eo du C9) a ie) = aah op d (dQ So fg oe du\dm arya is sara
: dm . 1 or, if we put for Tp 8 value m d (dQ _h-c r du “ za : By substituting the expressions given in (10), (11), and (8), in (m1) and (1v) we obtain the sought equations, which represent € two principal theorems of the mechanical theory of heat for
_ Vapors at a maximum density, namely
dr dp (v.) ap teh 4 4. dp (v1.) r= A. Pur and from the combination of the two, we also obtain ae te dr fies (12) art ¢—h= Via
14. With the help of these equations we will now consider a case which will so often occur in what follows, that it is advan- eous to fix, a priori, the results which refer to it.
8 assumed that the previously considered vessel
_ the form of vapor will change, and besides, a a or negative ternal wo vy P
roduces the pres- Sure of the vapor, since in the change of volume the pressure of
the form of vapor, the volume v and the work W are termi i ¥.
ad roe dv + [(—mebmh-br Fle7.
192 R. Clausius on the Application of the
must be equated to zero, in consequence of the condi- tion now laid down that heat must neither be communicated to nor taken from the mass. In this way we obtain, if we simply write dm for 4 v5 a Fe ys the equation 18 rdm+m(h-c)d T+ Mcd T= 0. If we substitute in this, according to (12) nga dr) F-. a ti doe and again write simply dr for iA of 7, we have rdm4mdr-dT4+Med T=0,
a7? T, since ris only a fancting
or (14) d(mr) - 7d T-4+Med T=0. If we divide this equation by 7, and remember that (mr MP) (mr ae id T=i(F), we obtain (15) a(") +Mc 70:
As the specific heat of a liquid changes but slowly with the temperature, we will in what follows, always consider the que
tity c as constant. Then the previous eps may | grated at once, and Bt
7 = ae Me log 7’=const, or if the initial values of 7, ee m, be ee by 71,7, m1, (vu) pets
By this equation, m is also pen oi as a fanotion of the tem-
perature, if r, as a function of the temperature, can be a poe
considered as known.
In order to give an approximate view of the behavior of this function, I have collected together in the apa table some — “ |
values calculated for a particular case,
that the vessel at the beginning contains no guid water, but 38
exactly filled with steam at the maximum density, so th
at f he previous equation m, is to be put equal to M, and let now
an expansion of the vessel take place. the vessel should be
ee oe ee eee scr an
ae ee ee
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 198
compressed, we could not make the assumption that in the be- ginning no fluid water is present, because then the vapor would hot remain at a maximum density, but would be overheated b the heat produced during the compression. In the expansion on the other hand, the steam remains not only at a maximum density, but a part of it is in fact condensed, and it is precisely the diminution of m produced thereby, to which the table re- fers. The initial temperature is assumed as 150° C., and corres- ponding values of 7 are given for the times when the tempera- ture has sunk by the expansion to 125°, 100°, ete. The tem- eeatnre estimated from the freezing point is denoted by 4, as
eretofore, to distinguish it from the absolute temperature repre- sented by 7.
| t | 150° | 195° | 100° | 50 | 50° | 95° | on | 1 | 0°956 | oo | 0°866 | 0'821 | 0-776 | M |
For this purpose we only need to substitute in the equation (vi1,) for r, the expression given in (vi,) whereby we obtain i hs od ) _ bo lo a (v11.) atet k mmong u,(35 ; oa z F .
The differential coefficient oe which occurs here is to be looked on as known; p itself is known as a function of the temperature, and consequently by this equation, the product mu is determined, and from it we obtain by addition of Mo the sought quantity v.
In the following sable; there is again collected a series ¢ values of the fraction aa which are deduced from this equation, for the same case to which the foregoing table relates, For the Sake of comparison, those values of = are also added, which we should obtain if the two assumptions usually made heretofore in the theory of the steam engine were correct. (1.) that the stean
SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXII, NO, 65.—-SEPT., 1856,
25
194 -R. Clausius on the Application of the
in expanding remains exactly at a maximum density, without partially precipitating, (2.) that it.obeys the laws of Mariotte and Gay Lussac. According to these assumptions we should
_ have
t 150° 125° | 100° 45° 50° 25°
“ 1 | 188 | so0 | 923 | o57 | ga4 z oes" eel ts) oan ae Lent |. a0 ies pk,
we: 17. It remains finally to determine also the work done during the change of volume. For this purpose we have generally the equation
(16.) W=f| pd 1 Now according to equation (6) if o be regarded as constant: dv=d(mu) whence pdv=pd(mu)
for which we may also write (17.) pdv=d (mup)— muha 7. We might put in this for must the expression given by equa- : tion (vit) and then execute the integration. We obtain the re- ; sult however at once ina rather more convenient form by the — following substitution. According to (v1) we have : dp.., ie 1 mr and from this by employing equation (14): dp 1 | mura T= 5 [4 (mr) + Med T}. Hence (17) becomes 1 p du=d(mup) — [a (mr) + Med 7), and by integrating this equation we obtain 1 (tx.) W=mup—m,u,p,+5[m, r,—mr+ Me(T,-T)]
whence W may be calculated, since the quantities mr and mu are already known from the foregoing equations, a
CS ee
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 195
I have also carried out this calculation for the above special case, whereby I have obtained the values given in the table for Tr that is for the work done during the expansion by the unit of mass. The kilogram is selected as the unit of mass, and
which 1 kilogram of water evaporates at the temperature of 150° and under a corresponding pressure, the value 18700.
t | 150° 25°
| 4 | 0 11800 | 28200 | 35900 | 49300
é 18. We turn our atten- tion now tothe consideration
125° : 100°
75° | 50°
om
| |
matic figure, which is only intended to facilitate the general view of the whole series of processes connected. with the action of a com-
From this, a portion of the = = passes into the cylin- ; der B, and forces the piston to a certain height. Then the cylin- der is cut off from the boiler, and the steam contained in it, lifts the piston still higher b expansion. The cylinder is thereupon put into connexion with the space Cc, which shall represent the condenser. We shall assume with respect to this, that it is not kept cool by ee he gs water but by cooling from without, which, as above remarked, produces no important difference in the re- Sults, but simplifies the consideration of the subject, Let the con-
D ee
= 5 is the equivalent of work for the unit of heat, and the above number signi- fies that the quantity of heat which is able to warm 1 kilogram of water from 0° to 1°. when gg into mechanical work gives a quantity of work equal to
196 R. Clausius on the Application of the
stant temperature of the condenser be called 7,. During the con- nection of the cylinder with the condenser, the piston goes back again through the whole space which it previously passed over, and thereby all the steam which did not of itself pass directl into the condenser is driven into this and is here condensed. It only remains in order to complete the cyclus of operations, to bring back into the boiler the liquid which has arisen from the condensation of the steam. ‘This purpose is served by the small
ump D, whose action is so regulated that during the ascent of the piston, it draws up exactly as much liquid from the conden- ser as has been brought into this last by the condensation of the steam; and this quantity of liquid is then forced into the boiler by the descent of the piston. When this has here become heated again to the temperature 7',, everything is again in the initial condition, and the same series of processes can begin anew. We have here then to deal with a complete circular process.
n common steam engines, the steam passes into the cylinder not only from one side, but alternately from both. This however produces only the difference that during an ascent and descent of the piston, two circular processes take place instead of one, and it is sufficient in this case also to determine the work for one of them in order to be able to deduce the whole work which is done during any time.
19, In this determination we will, as is customary, consider the cylinder as a shell which is impenetrable to heat, neglecting the exchange of heat which takes place during one stroke between the walls of the cylinder and the steam. The mass in the cylin-
not pass into the overheated condition during the expansion
in fine drops, and sare ae can rapidly participate in the — Ww
changes of bie i pea ich the steam undergoes during the expansion, we shall make no sensible error if we consider in cal-
culation the temperature of the whole mass in the cylinder as _
he same for every determined instant of time. Furthermore, not to make the formulas too complicated at th outset, we will in the first place determine the whole work which is done by the pressure of the steam without taking into account
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 197
It is moreover to be remarked with respect to the friction of the piston in the cylinder, that the work consumed in overcomin it is not to be considered as entirely lost, for by this friction heat is generated, and thereby the interior of the cylinder kept warmer than it otherwise would be, and consequently the force of the steam is increased.
Finally, as it is advantageous to learn in the first place the action of the most complete machine possible before we study the influence of the particular imperfections which naturally
a go is present during a circular process, may be expressed without further cal- culation, with the help of the results obtained above, and give a simple expression as the sum. Let the whole mass which passes during the ascent of the piston from the boiler into the cylinder, be called UM, and let the part m, be in the form of vapor, and the part M—m, liquid. the space which this mass occupies is, if m, signifies the value of « belonging to 7',, m,u,+Me.
The piston is accordingly lifted as high as this space underneath it becomes free, and as this happens under the action of the pres- sure p, pepe 7, the work done during this first process, which we may W,, is
(18) W,=m,u, p,+Mop,.
Let the expansion which now follows be so far continued, until the temperature of the mass enclosed in the cylinder has sunk from the value 7, to a second given value, 7,. The work which is done hereby, which we may call W,, is found immedi- ately from equation (1x), if 7, is assumed in it, as the final tem-
, and also if the corresponding values are substituted for the other quantities occurring in the equation, namely :
198 R. Clausius on the Application of the
1 (19.) Wa=m,%,p,—m, 4 Pit al" Pr, —-Mot24Mc(T, -T,)]. Tn the forcing down of the piston, which now oe the mass which at the end of the expansion occupied the spac My Uy + Mo is driven from the cylinder into the condenser, whereby the con- stant counter pressure p, is to be overcome. The negative work which is thereby done by this pressure is: ; (20.) W,=—m,u,p,—Mop,. : While now the piston of the small pump rises so high ee - space Mo beeomes free under it, the pressure p, W place in the condenser acts in its favor, and does the Fs gg (21.) W,=M p,. Finally, at the descent of this piston, the pressure p, which takes place in the boiler must be overcome, and does therefore the negative work:
By the midition of these five eyinitlatiog wi obtedh for the whole — work done during the circular process, by the pressure of the —
steam, or as we may also say, by the heat, which we may call W’, the expression 7
() Wea > slr 1—Mot,+Me (T, -T,)|+m,u, (P2-Po)-
From this equation, the quantity m, must be eliminated. This quantity, if we substitute for w, the value deduced from (v1),
occurs only in the ae m,7,, and for this product equa-
tion (Vil) gives the expressio
rn Mefg=M, Seger 7 Sop stot 7
By substituting this expression we obtain an equation in which — ae known quantities occur on the right side, since the masses — , and Jf and the temperatures T',, T, and tr, are assumed as immediately given, and the quantities 7, p sud & a are supposed 4 to be known as functions of the temperature. 3 21. If in equation Be we = T, equal to T,, we obtain the | work for the case in which machine works without ony : sion, namely : 4 (23) W=m,u, (Pp, Pa)
sae Co et ccd i ah go ee oe i ge OI RG a
Mechanical Theory o Heat to the Steam Engine. 199
If on the other hand, we hake the assumption, that the ex- gp is driven until the steam by the expansion has cooled
om the temperature of the boiler to that of the condenser, which, it is true, it is not completely possible to do, but whic still forms the limiting case to which we must approximate as
closely as possible, we need only put T',=7', whereby we obtain
(24) W'=-[m,r,—myro+ Me(T,-7,)].
If we also eliminate from this m,r, by means of the before- cited Siuktion, in which also we must put T,=T,, we have
* (x) We= “[™. Big 5 pal °+ MT, - -T, +7, log f »)|: 22. If we write the tren equation in the allowing form, (25) W=m eee pit Me(2- ye Ait oz los 7°),
~ two pone whi = occur herein, Me (7,- r. >) and m mts
comes from the pesmi in the fluid state, with the temperature o up to 7’, and the last represents the quantity of heat which is required to convert the portion m, at the temperature 7’, into m, is little smaller than i, the last quantity of heat is far , Breaier than the first. will bring the factor belonging to Mc(T,-T,) into a soca hat different form, in order to be able to compare with one other more conveniently the two factors, with which these 0 quantities of heat are multiplied in equation (25). If then, for the sone of abbreviation, we introduce the letter z with the Significatio
Taomit~, T,
_ * The foregoing equations, which represent k under the two simplifying an is te osushastnet $14, bad bed develo loped by m along
(26) z=
nded comp that Rankine had not considered the circumstance t wat liquid i oo a with ~ steam at its entrance into the cylinder. By the earlier te ea of this paper t eating J was ee for this rior of my inves- nevertheless the correspondence was in so far a gratification to me, as it ave me a guarantee that the mode of oteettng the subject employed was really & natural one.
200 R. Clausius on the Application of the we have = SAU od = es LF 7, ==1=z
and we therefore obtain
M+
oe Y ee 1-z | ET log phe) p
= G4 9+F +e)
Zz
zZ 22 Zs odie Rh | Sa BAW GES as
Equation (25) or (X1) thus becomes (27) W=m,r, Zt Me(,-7.)5-(
1 Z g2 tists
é Y expansion to the temperature of the condenser, without following singly the different processes of which the circular process consists. In this case, namely, the circular pro- cess 1s invertible in all its parts—we may imagine that the evap- oration takes place in the condenser at the temperature 7’,, and that the mass I, of which the part m, is va r, and the part (M4—m,) is liquid, passes into the cylinder, org lifts the piston ; that then during the descent of the piston, the steam is first —
all pump, the boiler into the condenser, an
Cn RO ES Pla 5 lesen ne .
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 201
maa(er-n/'59)
Q, signifies herein for our case, the heat communicated in the boiler to the mass M, and we have therefore
Q,=m, ry) +Me (7 Te
Q1 oe : d ; se In determining the integral [<2 the two single quantities of fe
heat contained in Q,, Mc (7,—7,) and m,r, must be particu- larly considered. In order to execute the integration for the first, we may write the element of heat d @ in the form Med 7 then this portion of the integral becomes } 5 Me eB FH sit To - : During the communication of the last quantity of heat, the temperature is constantly equal to 7’,, and the portion of the in- : mr tegral relating to this quantity of heat is therefore simply wae ‘ 1 By substituting these values, the above expression for W’ be- comes the following.
is W'=—[m,r, 4Me(2,-7,)- T(" 14 al 108 7.)]
1 T,-T, T =] m7, T. + Me(7,-7,47, lg 7°) |
and this is the same expression as that contained in equation (XI), which we have previously found by the successive deter-
mination of the single quantities of work done during the circu- ess
process, 24. Hence it follows that 7 the tem res at which the nee conveying the action of the heat takes up the heat delivered
given, then the steam engine, under the suppositions made in deducing equation (x1) is a perfect machine, inasmuch as for a etinite quantity of heat communicated to it, it does as much oe to the mechanical theory of heat, is possible at the same temperatures,
The matter is otherwise however if we do not regard these temperatures as given a priori, but consider them as a variable element which must be taken into consideration in judging the machine, In consequence of the fact that the liquid, during its
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856,
26
i
202 R. Clausius on the Application of the
warming and evaporation, has much lower temperatures than the fire, and that thus the heat which is communicated to it must pass from a higher to a lower temperature, there is in V an uncompensated transformation which is not reckoned in the calculation, which with the reference to making the heat useful - occasions a great loss. The work which can be obtained in the steam engine from the quantity of heat, m,7,+Mce(7,—T,)= Q,
is, as we see from equation (27), somewhat smaller than Qa, T, - To A; See =
If therefore the same quantity of heat could be communicated to a variable body at the temperature of the fire, which may called 7’, while the temperature corresponding to the subtrac- _ tion of heat, remains as formerly 7, the work possibly to obtained in this case according to equation (4) would be repre- sented by oS ae —ar-.
A In order to be able to compare the values of these expressions
in some examples, let the temperature ¢, of the condenser be »
fixed at 50° C., and let the temperatures 110°, 150°, and 180° C.
be assumed for the boiler, of which the first two correspond —
about to the low pressure engine and to the common high pres-
sure engine, and the last is to be regarded as about the limit of ©
the temperatures engines in practice. For these
in steam . cases, the fraction depending on the temperatures has the follow: -
ing value. ty | 110° 150° 180° |
| fF rae 0-157 | 0-286 | 0287
‘
“g er ae sa oil
Whereas the corresponding value for the temperature of / of ° ©. is 0-74 z
the fire, if we assume this only at
25. It is hereby easy to perceive what S. Carnot and after — him many other authors have asserted, that in order to arrange
portant advantage over steam engines, when we succeed in mak- : ing them work at considerable higher temperatures than steam —
tures. ever also be obtained with overheated steam, since as soon
the vapor is separated from the liquid, we may heat it still fur- :
ee SL eee Senna SC set oe es ee ee Dee re tanh
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 208
ther with as little danger as if it were a permanent gas. Ma- chines which employ the steam in this condition can unite many advantages of steam engines with those of air engines, and a practical result is therefore sooner to be expected from them, than from the air engines.
second more volatile substance is applied, the interval (7’,— i) is made larger because 7’, is made lower. The idea has sug- gested itself in the same manner to increase the interval on the
6. Besides the imperfection of the common steam engines just mentioned, which is founded in their nature itself, these ma- chines have many other defects, which are to be attributed more to their practical construction. ae,
One of these has already been considered in the above devel- opments, and is comprised in equation (x), namely, that the ex- pansion cannot by any means be carried so far that the steam in the cylinder reaches the temperature of the condenser. If we take, for instance, the temperature of the boiler at 150°, and that of the condenser at 50°, we see from the table of § 16 that for this purpose the expansion must continue to 26 times the original volume, while in reality in consequence of many evils which occur in high expansions, we usually allow it to reach only 8 or 4, and at the utmost, 10 times the volume.
Two other defects, on the other hand, have been expressly excluded in what precedes, namely, in the first place that the pressure of the steam in one part of the cylinder is less than in the boiler, and in the other part greater than in the condenser— and secondly, the presence of the injurious space.
We must therefore now enlarge our former views, in such a manner that these imperfections shall also be taken into consid-
eraflon (To be concluded.)
204 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States.
ART. XV1.—Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States ; = by ASA GRAY.
special aptitude for this kind of research. JI may. how- E
Pa: ever, collect and arrange the principal data; for the use of those
The work,* which forms the basis of the following statistics of — the botany of the Northern United States, has now been ex-
the north of it, and those chiefly on the coast of the low south- _
iver, and thence due east again, the small quadrangle thus ex-
* Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States; second edition; inclu: —
ding Virginia, Kentucky, and all east of the Mississippi: arranged : ak Natural System; by ASA ed according to t vant). With 14 plates, illustrating the Genera of the Crypt Fe George P. Putnam & Co., 1856, J ryptogamia. New Yor
ng AY, (the Mosses and Liverworts by Wa. S. Suture —
re eR URES ee Way
ee ae
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States. 205
crosses the parallel is Jussiea repens, This sparingly extends up Ses about as far north as on the Atlantic coast, In the elevated region through which the middle of our southern boundary passes, great numbers of northern plants are of course found to extend much farther southwar
er. The northern boundary, being that between the United States and British America, varies through about five degrees of lati- tude, and nearly embraces Canada proper on the east and on the
. * It would apparently exclude from the flora of the Northern States the follow- 1es —
ing spec Gordonia Lasianthus. Benzoin melissefolium. Stuartia Virginica. Tetranthera geniculata, Zanthoxylum Carolinianum. Stillingia sylvatica. Berchemia volubilis. Quercus virens. Viburnum o um. “ cinerea. Mitreola petiolata. Sagittaria falcata. Liatris odoratissima. Burmannia biflora,
panicula Tillandsia usneoides, Sericocarpus tortifolius. Smilax Walteri. Chrysopsis gossypina. " ceolata, | Baccharis glomeruliflora, Zygadenus glaberrimus, Kalmia hirsuta, Mayaca Michauxii. ex ine. Pepalanthus flavidus, “ myrtifolia, Lachnocaulon n, Vilfa Virgini emium sempervirens, Ctenium Ameri
Forsteronia diffurmis, Uniola paniculata. Olea Americana, : Paspal istichur Fraxinus platycarpa. gitar
Carol: little beyond lat. 388° 30’. Two other characteristic trees, viz, the Palmetto and Magnolia grandiftora, stop about as far short of our line as the two former pass
206 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
west; so that the volume in question probably contains nearly all the plants of Canada Hast, south of the St. Lawrence and of
The siapplcit ty of our flora, as a purely northern temperate —
one, is preserved by the absence throughout our limits of high mountains and of any considerable extent of elevated land, es-
* The following Pheenogamons plants, contained in Prof. Agassiz’s published list of the plants gathered on the north shore of Lak drei ee in age cee made in 1848, are not included in the Botany of the Northern Sta
Ribes oxyacanthoides, Tofieldia aa vel palustris.
Lonicera involucrata. Carex Vahlii,
Corispermum hyanoplfobiei:
To which I may add, that obscure and ambiguous Grass, the Aira melicoides,
yes ES te oe The last two, viz., Tofieldia palustris and Carex Vahl: ostichoi in Prof. Whit:
claim ad- ra. But Iwas not a ~~ Saye t re i fell within
graphically and ins to the northern shore, winks ie veustnion. co to display a e the
subalpine character, which it spire not the south side, I determined to
9 . + This list includes the few j 1 as found on the immediate coast of —
Lake Superior, altho ee one or the seven, aon Ribee oxyacanthoides, is truly Canadian. Three of them e from the northw: t and geo and three from the d
udson’s Bay country. I pat the antrédas a wth eckoni oning ari these iat
Hesperix matronalis, Sisymbryum Sophia, &e.: also all those <hbncicnath ao by Pursh, seme have not been sg d by later observ.
ruleum,
Thlaspi peste ®, Corispermum hyssopifolium. Linum perenn leaguus argentea, On eae Lambert en plant of | ge palustris. a
ue era (S piens. Ribes bes hades Gone mee ¥ \ s(Spiranthes, meng te Lonicera involuerata, Ponce vast melicoides. (Pow yy’ Hieracium,vulgatum, Kivuitee Dureyetess et Hooke mate Nardosmia frigida. Allosorus acrostichoides,
icaria inodo! So far as we know at present, roar only 29 indigenous
and Ferns (of Mee 12 are also E an) would therefore te added by or oa oo hat is, the abtniey ordsting the north of the awrence and
the Great Lakes
‘
4
‘ ‘ a
ere SNRs ee en eae
a
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 207°
pecially at the north, and the consequent paucity of truly alpine or even subalpine species. We have an alpi ion inde ern part of New England and New York, between or near lat. 44° and 45°. The White Mountains of New Hampshire fur- nish far the larger part, viz., the range strictly so called, with six or seven square miles (taken horizontally) of alpine region, of which the highest point slightly exceeds 6200 feet in eleva- tion, and its lower limit is about 4500 feet above the level of the sea, and Mount Lafayette (reaching to 5200 feet) along with other smaller patches, together making up almost as much more. Mount Katahdin in Maine (about 5300 feet high) may furnish a square mile or so of alpine region. The Green Mountains of Vermont (with a maximum elevation of 4360 feet) present mere vestiges of alpine vegetation in one or two places; and two or three summits of the Adirondack Mountains of northeastern New York (with a maximum elevation said to exceed 5400) are» of a more decidedly alpine character, but apparently of small extent and far from rich in species.
The southern shore of Lake Superior affords no alpine and perhaps no strictly subalpine species; nor do any occur in the
anerogamia and highest Cryptogamia: and although very much still remains to be done, yet we are now in condition profitably to compare our vegetation with that of Europe, and also, though less critically, with that of other parts of the north- ern temperate zone. ee
The following tables exhibit the principal elements of our flora, and some of its relations to the Kuropean, &c. aie
* The White Top Mountain in Virginia, just within its southern boundary, is eom- Siiay said to be about 6000 feet in elevation; but this is probably an exaggeration.
208 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States.
List He the Natural Orders of the Flora of the Northern United rs
the number of Genera and Species comprised in them,—distinguish-
ing the introduced and the indigenous Species,—and of t the indi igo Species common to this district and to Europe.
Cuass I. DICOTYLEDONZ S. EXOGEN 2.
WholeNo. — — Sit baie a No, of Indigo Orders. of Gener — naventve of Species, ——— F cm , Susctass. [. : GIOSP i Ranunculacesz 21 20 6 55 49 10:5 a Magnoli 2 2 6 6 iM Anonacez, 1 1 1 1 we Menispermacez, 3 3 3 3 berida 5 5 1 6 5 2 _Nelumbiacez, 1 1 1 1 = mbacez, 1 1 1 3 a pheacez, 2 2 3 3 1 oe Sarraceniaceer, 1 1 2 2 a Papaveracee, 6 2 5 7 2 : ariacez, 4 3 1 " 6 : Crucifere, 20 16 14 60 46 1} = Capparidacez, 1 1 1 tf acer, 1 1 1 4 Violacex, 2 2 a1 5.48 koe LS Cistacez, 3 3 7 7 , Droseracex, 1 1 4 4 9-408 Parnassiacez, 1 1 3 3 1: Hypericaceze, 3 3 hol 19 18 . Elatinaceex, 1 1 1 1 o Caryophyllacez, 19 11 17 47 30 18. 3 Portulacacer, 4 3 1 5 4 fa Malvacez, 9 7 6 15 9 2 Tiliacew, 1 rf 2 2 * Camelliaceze, 2 2 2 2 ae Linacez, 1 1 2 2 : Oxalidacez, 1 1 3 3 ae Geraniaceex, 2 1 2 5 3 rs Balsami 1 1 2 2 Limnanthacex, 1 1 1 1 Rutaceex, 2 $ : 3 3 Anacardiacex, 1 1 6 6 Vitacer, 2 2 4 7 Rhamnacez, 4 4 1 7 ee Celastracez. 2 2 3 3 Sapindacez, 4 4 1 11 10 ; ygalacez, 1 1 13 13 eguminose, 36 33 14 105 91 4 Rosacezx, 18 17 5 76 71 16
moo
Co
Ord | No, of th dace a yaa No.| radigena ie Jeders, 0. Ta 20d of Species, | [digenous| Spe Genera. kone Sp Species. em
Calycanthaces, 1 se ss 3 a
Melasto . 1 1 3 3
Lythraceze, 4 4 1 8 4
Onagracee, 9 9 36 36
| asacee, 1 1 1 1
. Cactacee, 1 1 1 1
Grossulacez, 1 1 q "
__ Passifloraceze, 1 1 2 2 Cucurbitacer, 3 3 3 3 Crassulacex 3 3 1 6 5 Saxifragacez, 11 11 22 22 Hamamelacer, 3 3 3 3 Umbelliferee, 26 21 5 42 37 Araliacer, 1 ] 6 6 Cornacez, 2 2 1l 11 Caprifoliacez, 7 4 27 27. Rubiacez, 9 9 1 24 23 Valerianacex, 2 2 z1 8 7
ipsaceze, 1 1 1 Composite, 83 67 27 300 273 Lobeliaceze, 1 1 12 12 _ Campanulacee, 2 2 5 5 AS ricacese, 27 27 62 62 1 . Galacinez, 1 “3 1 1 Aquifoliaceze, 2 2 10 10 Styracaceze, 3 3 5 5 Ebenacee, 1 1 1 1 Sapotacem, 1 1 2 2 ___ Plantaginacew, 1 1 2 8 6] Plumbaginacew, 1 1 1 Cok ce: b Primulacew, 11 10 1 Ling AG. Pentibulacea, 2 2 = 3 a4 Ignoniacese, 4 2 2 Oesbeislllies: 4 4 5 5 Scrophulariaces, 26 24 11 65 54 nthaces, ag | 2 3 3 Verbenacer, 4 2 10 7 _ Labiate, 83 21 22 71 49 __ Borraginacee, il 5 25 16 _ Hydrophyllacee, | 4 4 11 11 _ Polemoniacer, 4 4 12 12 Convolvulacez, 7 5 5 20 15 a Solanacee, 6 2 6 10 4 _Gentianacer, 9 8 3 " B a. acer, 3 3 : Petes 5 4 1 22 21
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856. 27
Or ©
a ee
210 _—Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. Crass. T—continued.
Rik of Gen: No. ae ae aa Orders. Week Pept por oe ety and of of Bpelies No tenon is "Species = Genera. “Species. yo Species. oo Oleace 5 4 a 10 9 Aristolochiaces, g 2 6 6 Nyctaginacee, 1 1 1 1 laccaceze, 1 1 1 1 : Chenopodiaceze, 9 7 11 21 10 6 : marantacez, 6 5 9 14 5 a Polygonace + 3 10 32 22 6 a Lauract 4 4 5 5 a Thymeleacee, 1 1 1 1 a Eleagnacee, 1 1 1 1 . Santalacee, 2 2 3 3 Loranthaceer, 1 1 1 1 : Saururace 1 1 1 1 Ceratophyllacee, 1 1 1 1 1 Callitrichacese 1 1 3 3 3 ostemaceee, 1 1 1 1 Euphorbiaceae, 9 9 iS 33 28 ‘ Empetraceee, 2 2 2 2 led rticacere, 11 10 4 19 15 Ls Platanacee, 1 1 1 1 Juglandacee, 2 2 9 9 a Cupulifere, 6 6 25 25 La yricacere, 2 2 3 3 lee Betulacez, 2 e 10 10 4 bel. ‘tikes GYMNOSPERMA, big Conifer, 8 8 20 20 Total, 622 522 223 | 1713 | 1490
Ciass II. MONOCOTYLEDONE seu ENDOGEN A,
Araceze 6 6 7 7 Typhacee, 2 2 7 7 Lemnacer, 1 1 5 5 Naiadaces, 5 5 16 16 Alismaces, 5 5 12 12 Hydrocharidacee, 3 3 8 3 Burmanniacee, 1 1 1 1 Orchidacee, 17 iz 51 51 Amaryllidacee, 4 - 4 4 Hemodoracee, 3 3 , 4 4 Bromeliaceee, 1 1 1 1 Tridaceze, 2 2 6 6 Dioscoreacese, 1 1 1 ae ‘ 3 3 18 18
Statistics of t. te Flora of the Northern States. 211
Whole |No. of Gen- No a a OS : of our Orders. | No, of Indigenous [sl ral fee and 04 Pisce og | Taigenou | Species : then oe A pecien. | te _ pecies, Europe, Liliacere, i 12 9 4 28 24 5 Melanthacer, 12 12 21 21 1 uncace 3 3 26 26 14 Pontederiacere, 3 3 4 4 Commelynacez, 2 2 6 6 Xyridace 2 3 4 ae cme i 3 3 5 5 1 Cypera e, 16 16 1 214 2138 48 Gra ihincs 65 55 32 194 162 32 172 159 37 638 601 141 Total von ea 794 | 681 | 260 | 2351 | 2091 | 321 é
Crass II]. ACROGEN A.
fee 1 1 10 Me BE Bea 20 20 49 49 20 saat | 2 2 12 12 6 ht thbew 9 9 4 4 1 rsileacese =f
we 1 oe Ss eT ee
Crass ITV. ANOPHYTA. Musci, 80 80 0 394 394 255 Hepatice, 38 38 0 108 108 65 Total, 118 118 0 502 502 320
Cryptoga- | mie, Cl beat | 148 143°} 0 577 577 | 355
Total of the 4 | a he _. Classes, < ~ t 937 | 824 | 260 2928 | 26
It is plain enough that the numbers in this tabular view must be essentially influenced throughout by one’s views as to the lim- itation of species and genera. In the hands of a few botanists, the flora of the Northern States might exhibit a somewhat
aller number of species than it here does; but with most, there would undoubtedly be a stronger tendency in the opposite direction. As it is obviously impossible at present to reduce the
various ideas and shades of difference that prevail respecting Species to one common standard, all that can be done is to indi- cate the bias, or what astronomers call the ao ite 4 each author, which must be duly considered when diff
a ee
212 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
the species here received, and give results quite incommeasurable : wit wn. I
ts ag The numerical comparison of our Phenogamous with our
Cryptogamous species, however interesting it might become in a complete flora, is here of little moment; only the higher Cryp- togamia being included. Moreover, it should be noted that the Musci and Hepatic enumerated in the above re 2 are those of — a geographical area about twice that of the higher or Acrogen- ous Cryptogamia and the Pheenogamia. For the distinguished American muscologist who elaborated these two orders for our — ‘Botany of the Northern States,’ anxious to afford facilities for the study of our mosses throughout the country, has included all — known to him within the whole United States east of the Mis- — sissippi, and even some as yet found only to the north and west — of these limits. It is evident, also, that the number of forms — admitted as species is proportionally larger in these two orders — than in the rest of the work. On the other hand it is to be con- sidered how little our mosses have as yet been collected and —
the 260 introduced species, most if not all of which have become
denizens of our country since its settlement by Europeans, and in consequence of that settlement;—leaving the question of their origin, introduction, &c., for future consideration. Their admis«
* Thus Mr. Watson, as cited by Alph. DeCandolle (Geogr. Bot, p. 511) enumet ates 602, out of 1428 phenogamous British plants, as common to Great Britain and America, I count only 321 out of 2091 p ies indigenous to the — Northern United States as indigenous also to Europe ao
_ Statistics of the Flora of the Northern” States. 213 The numerical elements of our Pheenogamous flora, consid- ered as to classes, are, as the tabular view shows: Dicotyledones or Exogense, 1490 ies in 522 genera. Monocotyledonex or Endogene, 601 Te 159 ee
> Total Phenogamous indigenous plants, 2091 « ty il
Or about 24 Dicotyledonous to one Monocotyledonous species. Their distribution among the 132 eS in our flora (Resedacee and Dipsacee of the above table being
\ List of the principal Phenogamous Natural Orders represented in the ora of Northern United States, arranged according to the number of
indigenous species they severally comprise
Species | Species.
Composite, 278 Liliacee, 24
about 4th of the 2091 Phanerogamia. Rubiaceze, 23
yperaceze, about zyth, “ 213 Saxifragacez, 22 Graminee, about qth, * ce bGs Polygonacez, “ 92 Leguminose, about sith,“ 91 Asclepiadacen, == 21 Rosacew, about sisth, “ 71 Melanthacex, 21 Ericacez, L 62 Conifers, 20 Scrophulariacez, 54 Violacee, Hypericace, and Orchidacee, 51| Smilaces, each 18 Ranunculacez, 49 Primulacee, Borraginacez, Labiate, 49 and Naidace, each 6 Crucifer, 46 Convolvulacee and Urticacer, Umbelliferze, + 387 eac 5 Onagracez, 36 Polygalacee, 13 Caryophyllacew, 30 Lobeliaceze, Lentibulaceee, Pole- Euphorbiacez, 28 moniacez, and Alismacew,each, 12 Caprifoliacez, _ 27 Cornacee, and Hydrophyllaceee, Juncacer, 26) each, . i Cupuliferse, 25 Sapindacere, Aquifoliaceee, Che- Salicaces, ; 24; nopodiacer, and Betulacee, Gentianacee, 24; each, F 10
Only 46 of our orders have 10 or more indigenous species: 63 orders have from 2 to ies, and 28 orders are represented each by a single species. The average allows 15:09 species to
Phzenogamous plants. In the present case the first nine families, having 1026 species, lack nineteen of making half; the sum of ten families exceeds the moiety by thirty. The result is nearly the same as that brought out by De Candolle from a similar schedule, tabulated by him from Beck’s Botany of the Northern
214 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern Siates.
and Middle States, north of Virginia, 1833, although the elements
are - aeueaninaes different and the ten largest orders are not the same througho
Moreover, our ten predominant rom as not properly cor-
respond with the ten mentioned by D dolle as generally pre- dominant in the temperate regions of the baat pine ere: viz. “ of os first rank, Composite, Graminee, Cyperacea, Legu-
n the Crucifere, Umbellifere, auch Ctaasieilice —_
minose ;
then, Pata less decidedly, the Labiate, Rosacea, and Scro lariacee.+ Nor would they do so if, by dividing the Hricacee into smaller ones, we were to exclude that fami y from the list of those (eleven in number) which severally comprise not than two per cent of our phzenogamous species. ‘I Sageaepes families accord indeed with De Candolle’s conclu: sion, only the Cyperacee with us are remarkable for surpassing the Dramas But the next three in our list are quite differ- ent, even if we omit Hricacee, being Rosacee, Scrophulariacee, and
Orchidace eo all three of De a secon rank fall be- ©
low firs and one of them ryophy would “fall still til if it were not str by the Hlecebrti so — regarded as a distinct family.
easy to see that these differences are owing to the unusual
shies of our ee in Cyperacee (chiefly in Curves), and to our —
.
* The schedule drawn from Beck’s = is ag follows : 265
prema sae 169 races, 157 i Homie sace, 97 Amentacee, 94 | =1066 species out of 2125 rin ne Leguminose, 80 plants. . iate, 59 Ranunculaces, 50 Scrophulariaceze, 48 Orchidacee, 47 J The differences are readily to be accounted for. 1. The Ri cee mo of Amentacet in this list for Hricacee in the other, results from the form order having —
ing fi r of Carices, in which the Northern United States are absolutely bat rich ; which increase has resulted
ulted from the remarkable attention and repeated = ration tit
genus has received sinee Saga time, from several hands, and perba 5 also fro a minuter discrimination of the species than in other families. 3. The order Rosace@
te imes as ma’ duced ne rs We proper poten of most of these orders, and swells the number of the Phanoga-
which strangely takes precedence of the Leguminose, is unduly expanded a e
pease nts to 2125, while we count only 2091 truly indigenous — within a0
Foaialt larger and now ag og ee known. Me: Alph. De Candolle: Geogr. Bot., p. 1
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 215
I must not stop here to compare our flora with that of Europe as respects the proportions of the predominant families. The data on our part for such comparison are recorded above. I
ass on to notice some charucteristic features which depend upon positive differences in the families.
fornia, and Galacinew, of one genus and species,—a genus incerte sedis, rather than an order. Our orders peculiar to America are the following :—
Sarraceniaces, Cactaces, ydrophyllacee, Limnanthacex, Galacinez, Bromeliacese ; Loasaceze
? all of which, except Galacinee and perhaps Bromeliacee, are also represented on the western side of our continent. Besides these
China, and the Extra-European Orders not peculiar to America.
“xtra-European Orders of the p in Western Pp pe » China, Flora of the Northern States N. America. or Himalayas, Magnoliacez. |Magnoliacez. Anonacee. nona: Menispermacee. |Menispermacee. Nelumbiacee. \Nelumbiacez. Cabombacee. , Calycanthacee. Calycanthacese Melastomacese. - Melastomaceze Passifloraceze. Passifloraceee. Hamamelace Hamamelacee. apotaces. Sapotacee. signoniace. \Bignoniacee (Martynia) ?/Bignoniacee. Nyctaginacee. |N yctayinacee. Nyctaginacese? Phytolaccacee. Phytolaccaceee. Phytolaccacee. aururacee. Saururacez. Saururacee. Podostemacee. Podostemacee. Burmanniacer. * |Burmanniacee. Hemodoracee. Commelynacee. \Commelynacez. Xyridacew. Xyridacez.
ag, i" > eae
As
216 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
Thus it appears, 1, that, of our 19 extra-Kuropean orders not peculiarly American, only 3 or 4 are represented on the western - or Pacific side of the United States, while all but one are repre- sented in the corresponding parts of Eastern Asia ;—indicating a curious analogy in the vegetation of the eastern sides of the two great continental masses in the northern hemisphere, which is also borne out, though not so strikingly, in a comparison of the
nera. D. That the flora of the Northern United States is remarkably rich in ordinal types, as compared with Europe, which, (exclu- sive of the Mediterranean region, furnished with two or three), has only seven orders that we have not, while we have 26 that are wholly unknown to the European flora. 3. And it is worth noticing that our additional or character- — istic orders are all of warm-temperature or sub-tropical general character (which is the more remarkable when the lower mean temperature of the year as compared with that of Western Ku- rope is considered): all of these 26 orders have their principal development in the tropical regions, excepting six of the smaller ones; and three of these have tropical or sub-tropical repre- sentatives, : | 4, But the peculiar and extra-European families do not pre- dominate, nor overcome the general European aspect of our — vegetation, on account of the fewness of their species. Of the — est in our flora (Hydrophyllacee) we count only 11 species; — and the whole 26 orders give us only 64, or barely three per cent of our phenogamous species. a _ Our Pheenogamous genera, 681 in number, average three spe- cies apiece. Far the largest genus is Carex, with 182 species. On the other hand one half of our genera are represented by — single species; and about 92 of these are monotypic, having only a single known species. Mee The genera which are strictly confined within the geographical ;
our extra-Huro henogamous genera are enum their respective families, and their distribution in longitude i8 attempted to be given in the two parallel co -
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 217
Phenogamous Genera of the Flora of the Northern United States not common to Kurope, with indications of their distribution westward, and in Kastern Temperate Asia, eS s
E Asia,
Extra-European ¢ Generaj Also occurring In WON. Occurring in E Asi Orders. of Eastern N. Awer- |America, i. €., in Ore-ji.e, in Japan, China, or as aS _ica. oe ai and California. Himalayas, fanunculacee, | Trautvetteria. | Trautvetteria, Trautvetteria. Zanthorhiza. ydrastis, Cimicifuga. Cimicifuga, Cimicifuga, Magnoliacee. Magnolia, Magnolia, Liriodendron, Anonacee, ) Asimina i enispermacee. |Menispermum, Cocculus. Cocculus Calycocarpum. ; Berberidacee. Caulophyllum, Diphylleia, : Jeffersonia, : Podophyllum, Podophyllum. Nelumbiacee, - umbium. Nelumbi ——- Cabombaceee, rasenia, Brasenia. ) Sarraceniacee, | Sarracenia, _ -Papaveracee, —_| Stylophorum. Stylophorum — Fumariacee, Adlumia. E Dicentra. Dicentra. Dicentra. ; Cruciferce, Todanthus. | avenworthia. i Capparidacew. | Polanisia. Polanisia, Violacewe, Solea. Cistacee, Hudsonia, Lechea. Hypericaceee, Ascyrum, ea, lace. | Anychia, Caryophyl evens Mclingé. Mollugo. Mollugo. Portulaccacee, | Sesuvium. Sesuvium. inum, Talinum. Claytonia. Claytonia, Malvacee. Callirrhée. - Napea. : ida. Sida. Sida. Kosteletzkya. Kosteletzkya. ; é Camelliacew, Gordonia. Gordonia. as ee Stuartia. Stuartia. imnanthacee, | Floerkea. Rutacee, Zanthoxylum. Zanthoxylum. Ptelea,
SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXII. NO. 65.—SEPT., 1956, 28
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
218 Table continued. Pca aly Extra P Also occurring in W. —s Por ° hiae Orders. a Eastern N. Amer- smgeny? big Baa aiete — Vitacee. Ampelopsis, Ampelopsis? Rhamnacee. hemi Berchemia ‘ Ceanothus, Ceanothus. ‘Sapindacee. Atsculus. ulus. Aesculus. ag Negundo. Negundo, Negundo. Leguminose, Crotalaria. Crotalaria. Dalea. ea. Petalostemon. _|Petalostemon. orpha, Amorpha, Robinia. Wistaria ista Tephrosia Tephrosia. Aischynomene shynomene, Desmodium Desmodium. Lespedeza. Lespedeza. Stylosanthes, ios. Rhynchosia Rhynchosia. alactia Amphicarpea. Clitoria. Clitoria. |Centrosema, Baptisia. Cladrastis. Cassia. Cassia. Gymnocladus, Gleditschia. Gleditschia, Desmanthus, Desmanthus, Desmanthus. chran Rosacee, illenia. Calycanthacee, |Calycanthus. Calycanthus. ‘ie Melastomacee. exia. P Lythracee, Ammannia, Ammannia, |Ammannia. a Neseea. is Cuphea, Onagracee, (Enothera. (Enothera, ura, Gaura. Jussisea, J ussiza, Proserpinaca. Loasacece Mentzelia. Mentzelia, Cactacee.- . Opuntia. Opuntia, Cucurbitacee, icyos, Sicyos. Sicyos. Echinocystis Melothria. Crassulacee. Penthorum }Penthorum. Sazifragacee. tilbe. Astilbe.
wee
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States 219
occurring - N. Occurring in a, i.e, Ordera. of Eastern N. Amer. America, iv. in Ore-| in J China, or ica. }_gon and California. i Boykinia. Boy kinia, Sullivantia, euchera, Heuchera, Mitella. Mitella. Mitella. Tiarella. Tiarella. are. Itea. Hydrangea. Hydrangea. Philadelphus. —_|Philadelphus. Philadelphus. Hamamelacee. |Hamamelis, Hamamelis. Fothergilla | Liquidambar Liquidambar. Umbellifere:. Crantzi Polytenia Archemora, Archemora. Tiedemannia. pi Thaspium. a. Discopleura, Cryptotenia. Osmorhiza, Osmorhiza. orhiza. ophus., Erigenia. oe Nyssa. Ge foliacee. |Symphoricarpus. [Symphoricarpus. ; _< Dierdilla, sd iervilla( Weigela) iosteum. Rubiacea. Spermacoce. : Diodia. Cephalanthus, Cephalanthus. Mitchella. Oldenlandia, Idenlandia.
ernonia. Elephantopus.
| Adenocaulon, Adenocaulon. Sericocarpus, —_|Sericoearpus. Diplopappus, Diplopappus. Diplopappus. sltonia. Brachycheta, . Bigelovia,
Rudbeckia, Helianthus.
Coreopsis.
Hymenopappus. Helenium.
Troximon.
Gaultheria.
ee Menzi:
Pterospora,
220 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. Table continued. 5 ra-European TAlao occurring in W. N.(Occurring in EB. Asia, Orders. [et Resvtes N, ay xs oie ive: is Glin: se ‘ in Japan China, | ica. go ifornia. or Himalayas Chrysopsis. Chrysopsis. Pluchea. Pluchea. Baccharis. Baccharis. Polymnia Chrysogonum ~ Silphiu arthenium a Eclipta.
Cacalia. <G
Clethra,
Slatistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
ie Sea
221 Table continued. Orders. = o Raho N. nano “awe? as in Cie! "Ee. indapan, Chie, of gon or California. Himalayas. Styracacea. a Symplocos m Sapotacea. Bacia. SRG Primulacea. Dodecatheon. |Dodecatheon. Bignoniacee. Tecoma (also Tecoma (also ,___ Uatalps.) Catalpa.) Bignonia, Orobanchacee. |Epiphegus Conopholis. hyllo Aphyllon. Scrophulariacee. |\Collinsia Collinsia. elone. elone. Pentstemon Pentstemon, Mimulus Mimulus. Conobea. Herpestis Herpestis. __ |Herpestis. Ilysanthes. ike Paane Hemianthus. 3 Synthyris. Synthyris, “le nba i a Buchnera. Seymeria. Gerardia. Schwalbea. erg Gelsemium. Acanthacea. Dianther: Diptoracanthus, |Dipteracanthus. Verbenacea. Callicarp. Callicarpa. Phryma, Labiata. so eo Trichostema. santhus ; Junila, >yenanthemum. |Pycnanthemum. edeoma, Hedeoma. Collinsonia, onarda, Blephilia. Lophanth |Lophanthus. |Lophanthus. Cedronella. “ Synandra. Physostegia (Physostegia. Borraginacea. |\Onosmodium Hydrophyllacee. Hydrophyllum. Hydrophyllum. Nemophila. Nemophila, _ Ellisia. Ellisia. Phacelia. haceli Polemoniacea. [Phos hlox. Phlox.
222 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. Table continued.
Orders.
rd nen N. hae
)Extra-European Genera Also occurring in W.N.
America, | i & in Ore-
Occurring in E. Asia, -< in et China,
Convolvulacee.
Gentianacea.
Apocynacea.
Asclepiadacee. |
Oleacea.
WNyctaginacee. Phytolaccacea. Chen }
acee,
Amarantacee. Lauracee.
Thymeleacea, a@ganace Santalacea,
Loranthacee.
Urticacee.
Juglandacee.
Pydaathern Stylisma. Dichondra. Sabbatia.
Frasera.
stam ad
Oxybaphus.
Tetranthera, Comandra. Phoradendron. Acalypha,
Croton.
Halenia.
Amsonia.
Oxybaphus.
Benzoin. 'Tetranthera.
Saururus,
Acalypha. Stillingia. Croton.
Beehmeria.
iPhyllanthus. |Pachysandra.
=
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
Orders,
Table continued.
Extra-European Ge s. Eastern N. pang
Also oc: ng W,
gon and California.
Myricacee. | Conifera,
Aracee,
Wek ydrocharidacea. een niacece
Orchid
Amaryllidacee. Hemodoracee. Bromeliacee. Lridacecee. Smiliacee. Liliacee,
Melanthacee.
N. pags i es in Ores
Occurring in E. Asia, in jores, China, pb alaya
Saapeonia Taxodium.
Echiiodorus,
Pancratium. Agave.
Hypoxys. Lachnanthes. Lophiola.
Thuja.
Symplocarpus.
Aletris, Tillandsia. Sisyrinchium, Trillium. eola. Clintonia, Yucca. Uvularia, Prosartes, eee
Sisyrinchium, Trillium,
Clintonia. Yucca,
'Prosartes,
_ |Xerophyllum.
Thuja. |Ariszema,
Symplocarpus.
Burmannia.
Trillium. Clintonia.
Uvularia ?
Zygadenus.
Commelyna. ‘Tradescantia.
Xyris.
224 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. Table continued.
Extra-Eu:op gin W.N.)Occurring in E. Asia, Orders. of Eastern N. Amer- | America, i.e. in Ore-| i.e. in Japan, China, ica. gon and California. or Himalayas.
Cyperacea, Kyllingia. Kyllingia. D
Fuirena,
Scleria. ' |Scleria. Graminee. Zizania. Vilfa. Vilfa. Vilfa. a Sporobolus. Sporobolus, u jMuhlenbergia. - Aristida, Bouteloua, Bonteloua.
Leptochloa. eS Leptochloa.
Arundinaria, |Arundinaria.
Paspalum. Cenchrus. Cenchrus. Cenchrus.
Sorghum. | Sorghum, 353 101
That is, 87 of our 853 extra-European phenogamous gener
or 24 per cent are common to Western North America, and 101,
or 28 per cent to Eastern temperate Asia. Four per cent more
of our characteristic genera are shared with an antipodal region — than with the neighboring district of W. N. atiniee ‘And the : number is likely to increase; for we know far less of the flora of - Japan and China than of California and Oregon. Drs. Hooker © and Thomson’s large Himalayan collections, now in the course
of distribution and publication, will probably add several more to the list. Twenty-nine of these genera, or 8 per cent, are regions, b
common to all three of these Our 194 genera which are neither European, N
nor E, Asiatic in temperate regions, require further discussion t0 — show which are characteristic of Eastern North America, We —
here barely notice that:
, et oe eee eee Lae BLE
Feo ear a aes
Riis ic See £8 oe
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 25
3 Belong also to Western temperate Asia, viz. Menispermum Planera, and Zizania; two of these being peculiar to that district and to ours.
73 Extend southward beyond the limits of the United States apd into tropical regions, or recur in the southern hemis-
ere.
120 Ke characteristic Eastern United States genera.
As already stated, only three genera are actually restricted to the geographical area comprised in our ‘Botany of the Northern United States’. If, however, we allow our area to embrace Can- ada, which naturally belongs to it, and also include those plants which extend southward much beyond lat. 36° 30’ only in the Alleghanies or cool upper country of the Southern States, we
may enumerate 37 genera peculiar to this flora; viz.—
Zanthorhiza. Echinocystis. Pyxidanthera. Hydrastis. Sullivantia. Direa. Caulophyllum. Zizia. Hamiltonia. | Diphylleia, Erigenia. Comptonia. Jetfersonia. — - Brachycheeta. Arethusa. Adlumia, Chiogenes. Tipularia. Solea. Oxydendrum. Aplectrum, Huds Sia. - Rhodora. Medeola. Napea, Leiophyllum. Helonias. Cladrastis, Schweinitzia. Chamelirium Gymnocladus, Galax. Amphicarpum - Gillenia. Nemopanthes.
Dalibarda. Hemianthus.
nerally; and no idea can be formed of the real features of a fo ike ours from such a dissection, and piecemeal presentation, ach part,
or from an exhibition of what is strict] y peculiar to eac rather than what is predominant,—at least as respects generic forms.
Returning now to the species—the real exponents of vegeta- tion;—these have already been considered as regards their nu- merical proportions in the several classes and orders of the flora of the Northern States: it remains to note some facts respecting their geographical distribution.
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856,
29
226 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
As appears from the tabular view commencing on p. 208,
there are common to Europe, 180 Dicotyledonous species out of 1490, or 12 per cent, 141 Monocotyledonous species out of 601, or 234 “ 321 Phenogamous Species out of 2091 or 153 “ 35 Acrogenous Cypogunis out of 75 or 466 “* 320 Musci and Hepatice out of 502 or 63-7 “
855 Cryptogamous species out of 577 or 61:5 “
in accordance with the general fact that the lower the class the
The Indigenous Phaenogamous Species of the Northern United States, : tem-
viewed as to their geoyraphical distribution around the northern perate zone,
Sa eess)28 ) 2 1is1 2 te e > |eee(ersidd? | 2 | 22)2 [2°78 3 ese ite| 262) 2 | 2 | ee | ze |e 3 25: Grta| eee] = | 22 | 22 | fe |2e B55 petal mes) a | ze | zt | ge | 224 Class I. DicoryLeponea&, da seu Exocena, ee Ranunculaceex, 49 | 26] 20] 18 1 5] 10).2— Magnoliacer, 6 6 vag Anonacez, 1 1 ; Menispermacee, 3 3 beridacez, 5 5 Nelumbiacee, 1 1 Cabombacee, 1 1 1 1 ‘ Hiiad pbs 1 i ni 2 2 - Papaveracese, 2 2 ve Fumariacer, 6 5 1 Cruciferse, 46 | 81 18447 2 1l ; Capparidacer, 1 1 et Violacesw, 18 | 15 3 1 1 we Cistacee, 7 q Droseracer, 4 2 1 1 2 1 Parnassiacee, 3 2 1 1 1 Hypericaceze, 18 | 18
Asia.
See: sae eae
Statistics of the Flora of the Morthern States.
§
“eli? | 2 af): (a fi
é geelteveizs | s | ge} ee] e2 | Ez
: giz |efb/f2 | 2 | $2] 28) 2 {6 S| eet lSeRel ede | 2 [a8 | ei | 2 |x =z ofs (Ze bh Soe os ge] 3, | s (s¥ E eee [cces|cse| & | 2s | 28 zi |is4 Z si |e5a/ee| § | 25 | 28 | ge |28
Elatinacez 1 1
a 30} 14] 1 12 13 1
Portulacacex, 4 4
- Malvaceze 9 9
Tiliacez, 2 9
Camelliaces, 2 2
inacee, 2 2
Oxalidacer, 3 1 2 2
Geraniacee, 3 1 1 1
Balsaminacee, 2 2 os
Limnanthacee, 1 1
Rutacez, 3 3
Anacardiacee, 6 5 1
Vitacer, 7 7
hamnacee, 6 6
Celastracez. 3 2 1
Sapindacew, 10 | 10
Polygalacez, 13 | 18
Leguminose, 91} 84 7 4 ®, Wie aot 98 47) "3 3
Jalycanthacez, 3 3
Melastomacee, 3 3
Lythraceze 7 5 1 1 1
Onagracee, 36 | 26; 10; 10
I cee 1 1 7
Cactacez, ] 1
Grossulacex, vi 5 2 1
Passifloraceze, 2 2
Cucurbitacez, 3
Crassulacez, 5
Saxifragaces, 22 | 15 4 + 2 2
Hamamelacer, 3 3
Umbellifers, 87 | 26 9 4 3 2
Arali ; 6 in : 1 1 1
Cornacee, 11
Caprifuliaces, 27; 19 7 3 1 3
Rubiacex, ee} tis} *et 8re 1 4
Valerianacez, 7 6 1
Composite, 273 | 233 | 29] 11 2 9
Lobeliacer, 12 ll : ; 3 :
Campanul 3
tom (| as] ‘os | “| Mel 9d it 0
228 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. <
Cuiass I—continued.
SS, leefelt2 | 4.12812 3 | Se 2 gic leseeies. | 3 | 24 | 22 |= [89 3 eeebiee|eer| 2 | | ea |e |e 3 ge. eted|/est| 2 | 32 | 22 | Ze |3%e s se5 ise) see] 8 | zs | 22 | #® | 22s sinew, 1 1 A quifoliaceze, 10} 10 Styracacez, 5 5 “benacese, 1 1 Sapotacez, 2 2 Plantaginaces, 6 4 4 1 1 lumbaginacez, 1 1 1 1 Primulaces, 16 8 8 6 6 Lentibulaces, 12 8 2 4 4 Bignoniacese, 2 2 Orobanchacee, 5 2 Scrophulariacez, 54} 38 | 15] 10 1 10 Acanthacez, 3 3 ' Verb 7 5 1 1 1 1 Labiate, 49 42 7 4 4 af Borraginacee, 16] 12 4 3 3 H ydrophy!laceze, 11 2 Polemoniacex, 12}; 11 1 1 1 Convol vulacez, 15 | 14 1 1 1 oa Solanacez, 4 4 wid Gentianacee, 24 | 22 2 2 2 od fae Apocynacer, + 3 1 A Asclepiadacez, if 21 - ( ®, 9 9 es Aristolochiaceee, 6 6 ite yetaginaces:, 1 1 a Phytolaccacte, 1 1 Sn enopodiaceee, 10 4 5 5 1 6 t= Amarantacee, 5 5 Sa Polygonacee, 22] 14 7 6 1 6 ny Lauraceze 5 5 ee Thymeleacem, 1 1 Ts 'eeagnacese, 1 1 ey Santalacee, 3 2 1 A Loranthacer, 1 1 ae Saururacc ze, 1 1 ns | : Ceratophyllaceze, 1 ti" 1 Callitrichacese 3 3 3 3 | I odostemaceee, 1 1 & Euphorbiacee, 28 | 25 3 a Einpetracee, 2 1 1 1 1 a Urticaces, 14 et 8 | 1 Ll A |
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
g
Inhabiting Europe but not fa Eastern
Asia,
: sei lsd? | 2 [22/2 [a a c = wt So es sg P= 6 a22 378:/52 | 2 | 22 | #2 | 2 rl ees es] S=_ | 2 | SF | Be Hs eB. ZED jesce| B25 = Ee 52 Es | z Zee @ee8/25.1 2 | 2s | Bs | Se | Bas germ SSS) & 68] 58 a | latanaceze, 1 1 pay uglandacee, 9 9 Cupulifere, 5 | 23 1 1 1 1 ricacese, 3 2 1 1 1 Betulacez, 10 6 2 4 2 4 Salicaceee, 24 18 6 4 1 3 oniferee, 20} 18 7 2 2 Class IT. MoyocorrLzpon &, ‘ seu EnDoGEN &, Arace: 7 5 2 2 2 Typhacez, 7 1 3 5 6 Lemnacee, 5 it 4 4 Naiadacee, 16 4 + 9 5 12 Alismaceze 12 154 4 a 4 4 Hydrocharidacee, 3 1 1 1 2 Burmanniac 1 1 dacem, Siete 181 81 68) 4d Amaryllidacee, 4 4 odoracese, em» 4 Bromeliacese, 1 1 Tridacese 6 5 1 Dioseor ; 1 1 Smilacez, 18 de: Ae 1 Liliaceas, 24 14 7 5 1 1 Melanthacez, 21 15 6 1 1 Juncacee, 26 6| 16] 14 4 14 Pontederiacee, 4 4 Commelynacer, 6 6 Xyridacee, 4 4 Eriocaulon 5 4 1 Cyperacee, 218 | 155 37 37 3 2 48 i 162 | 114 44 33 1 4 32 pee) Motoco: 601 | 408 | 143 | 124] 19| 8 | 141 : tyledonee, Dicotyledonee, 1490 |1168 | 278 | 184 26 17 | 180 Phrenogamia, 2091 |1576 | 416 | 308! 45 | 25 | 321
230 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
The data are not at hand for extending this table through the higher ee togamia, ey for the highest class, and that im The four orders of Vascular or Acrogenous Oryptosie pa 5 speek the fllowing Sau: the columns being homologous with those of the last table.
Equisetaceee, 10 2 8 8 8 |Filices, 49 | 26118123} 81 3 | 20 Lycopodiacee, | 12 | 4] 6| 7{] 1] 2] 6] 1 Hydropterides, | 4| 2] 1] 1] 1 1
75 | 34 | 28 ee 10 5 | 35 1
ka all round the world, they increase somewhat unduly the
umbers of our species common to Europe and to Asia; but ‘hey are not sufficiently numerous with us to require to be for- mally eliminated. The following are all the Phsenogamous spe- cies which, within our limits, are found only in our small alpine region, namely, on the summits of the White Mountains of New Hampshire, of Mount Katahdin, Maine, and the highest peaks
of the Green Mountains, Vermont, and the Adirondack Mountains Hie nes
in Northern New Yo
Cardamine bellidifolia. Oxyria reniformis. Vio tris, Betula nana. Silene acaulis. Salix phylicifolia. Sibbaldia proc Salix Uva-Ursi. Dryas integrifolia, (fide Pursh). Salix repens. Potentilla frigida, ix herbacea. Epilobium — var. majus. Luzula arcuata, Saxifraga rivularis. Luzula spicata. Gnaphalium pag Juncus trifidus Nabalus Boottii Carex capitata. Nabalus nanu Carex atrata Vaccinium czspitosum. Phleum alpinum. Arctostaphylos alpina, eee ue Pickeringii. Phyllodoce taxifolia. Poa
Rhododendron Lapponicum. ine prema ore Veronica alpina. Hierochloa alpina, Diapensia Lapponica,
Of these 83 species, two (Nabalus Boottii and Calama
Pickeringit) are peculiar to our own alpine region, so far as is now a
; an two (Nabalus nanus and Vaccinium cespitosum) are peculiarly North American. All the rest are European, and nf ee two or three exceptions also Asiatic. No one sof our vascular Crypto gamous species is = alpine, Lycopodium Selago comes the nearest to being so
=
ERY Sat SP eee Bie apse eS he Pool, oe ne Ren Sie SE MIS aN
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 281
The following are with us subalpine species; they occur in our alpine region (to which most of them properly belong), but also out of it, at least in one or two places.
Alsine Greenlandica. trum nigrum. Geum radiatum. Platanthera obtusata. Arnica mollis, Scirpus ceespitosus. Vaccinium uliginosum. Carex scirpoidea. Euphrasia officinalis. Carex capillaris, Polygonum viviparum. Trisetum subspicatum.
All of these except Gewm radiatum, Arnica mollis, and Carex seirpoidea, are also European. The last grows in Greenland. The following European species have not been detected in any
properly alpine habitat with us (where they might be expected
to occur), but elsewhere, three of them (Saaifraya aizoides and Carex gynocrates) in stations not even subalpine:
Saxifraga oppositifolia. Artemisia borealis, Saxifraga aizoides. Juncus Stygius. Saxifraga Aizoon. Carex gynocrates.
Two Ferns might be added to the subalpine list, viz :— Wood- sia glabella and Aspidium Sragrans.
e Phzenogamous species whose range far as is now
Botany of the Northern United States’ are the following
7 { > ‘ so _ known, falls wholly within the limits of the ‘Manual of the
DicoryLeponovs, MonocorTyLeDonows. Dentaria maxima. Lemna perpusilla, Vesicaria Shortii. Potamogeton Robbinsii. _ Napzea dioica. - uckermani. Sida Napa. Trillium nivale. 5 Psoralea stipulata. eratrum ll. . Astragalus Robbinsii ? Helonias bullata. — &
igi polycarpa. Narthecium Americanum Tillzea simplex. Juncus Greenii. Sullivantia Ohionis. Cyperus Grayii. Galium concinnum. Eleocharis rostellata. Fedia F compressa, 2.7 \ygehitiean, «Robbins “ patellaria, Psilocarya scirpoides, Eupatorium pubescens. Rhynchospora capillacea, “ jnosum. Carex exilis. H Solidago Ohioénsis. “ — Sartwellii = oughtonii “ —_ sychnocephala. & e ta. ve Craw “ Muhlenbergii “ tormosa. “ —— linoides. “ Careyana. eo ear « — retrocurva. abe. “« Sullivantii.
232 On the Museum of Practicai Geology of Great Britain.
DicoryLeponovs. MonocoTyLeDonovs. Rudbeckia speciosa. Carex mirata. Coreopsis bidentoides. “ Grayii. Cirsium pumilum. Sporobolus compressus. Nabalus Boottii. 4: serotinus. Gaylussacia brachycera. Calamagrostis confinis. Utricularia clandestina. . Pickeringii.
= resupinata, — brevipilis, Hemianthus micranthemoides. Dupontia Cooleyi. Pycnanthemum clinopodioides. Glyceria acutiflora.
. i. oa alsodes.
Asclepias Sullivantii. “ debilis.
a Meadii
Meadii. Amphicarpum Purshii.
34 species = 71. (Zo be continued.)
Arr. XVII.—Letter on the Museum of Practical Geology of Great Britain; by Sir Roperick I. Murcuison.*
TO THE RIGHT HON. LORD STANLEY OF ALDERLY, &c. d&ec.
Havine heard that Her Majesty’s Government proposes to re- move the Department of Science and Art, at present under the control of the Board of Trade, to the office of the Minister of the Crown-who may be élinectad with the education of the people, IT beg to be permitted to place on record a few observations on the effect which such a change may produce upon the establish- ment in Jermyn-Street, as consisting of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom and its affiliated School of Mines and illustrative Museum.
exposition of the views entertained by my associates and myself. will first recall to your Lordship’s notice, briefly, the origin of this establishment ‘and the objects which it was destined to
__™* From a “Copy of Correspondence between the Director-General of the Geolog- ical Survey and the President of the Board of Trade and the Council of Education,
relative to annexing a Museum of Practical Geology to the Department of Arts and
On the Museum of Practical Geology of Great Britain. 288
wealth, have analogous institutions, attention will be drawn to the following points. S irst. What real benefits will be derived from our estab- lishment, if it be duly encouraged as a higher School of Mines? Second. What may result, if it be rendered subordinate to
interest of man. Acting on this principle, each government of the Great American Republic has its state geologist, Sepia . 10018
ool for sound instruction, not only in geology, mining, and mineralogy, but also-in the essentially connected sciences of nat-
934 On the Museum of Practical Geology of Great Britain.
inspectors of coal mines, each receiving a salary of 400/. per annum, should be appointed, who had not undergone the prelim- inary studies which our institution affords. If such and other
the part of Her Majesty’s government, that no one of the twelve arian t
which we teach.
A really encouraging move, one which has produced the best effects upon our students, has indeed been made in this direction through the enlightened views of His Royal Highness Prince Albert, who, acting for His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, as Duke of Cornwall, presented to our establishment two schol- arships of the annual value o . each.
ven in our present condition, nearly 100 officers
7
of Her Majesty’s or the Honorable East India Company’s services haye
or let it be supposed that, in any case where a young man is really desirous to gain knowledge, he is not adequately taught; inasmuch as eneey one of our professors acts both as teacher and examiner, ané takes upon himself the tutorial responsibility of ascertaining that he a truly imbued his pupil with sound nowledge. 2 A striking proof of the interest attached to the useful instruc:
cially to call attention to a volume about to be issued by our —
a
e
%,
On the Museum of Practical Geology of Great Britain. 235
may arise, if our body should, by a change of relations, be gov-
he the diffusion of scientific knowledge among its masses. ey may, with the most sincere and earnest intention, not only fail to advance, but even exercise a retarding influence on suc iffusion, and may object to a course of study w ich, as now pursued, is irrespective of religious teaching. Experience has shown in how sickly a manner practical science is allowed to
-Taise its head under the direction of those persons whose. pur-
Suits are alien to it; whilst in every land, where it has had due Support, the greatest benefits have resulted. —
laced as the geological survey and its affiliated branches now are, in subordination to the Board of Trade, they are continually aiding in the development of an amount of mineral wealth far exceeding that of any other country, and in this wholesome and Important action, the movements of our body are not only un- fettered, but are likely to receive all that encouragement which
Seems alone to be wanted to enable this establishment to be emi-
nently useful in instructing that class of persons who will mate- ate augment the productive industry and trade of Great itain,
* See Mr. J. Kenyon Blackwell’s Paper on the Present position of the Iron Tndus- uy of Great Britain, with reference to that of other Countries, read at the Society Arts, Wednesday 9, January 1856, p. 121 of the Journal.
236 J. M. Safford on the Genus Tetradvum.
I have thus taken the liberty of offering to your Lordship, as the Member of Her Majesty’s Government under whom I serve, my view upon a subject of which I have long thought; and have only now to request that, in giving it your best attention, you will submit this letter to Her Majesty’s Government, an particularly to the consideration of the Minister who may be des- tined to be charged with the education of the country.
Geological Survey Office, Jermyn Street, Jan. 25, 1856.
Art. XVIIL—Remarks on the Genus Tetradium, with Notices of the Species found in Middle Tennessee ; by Prof. J. M. SAFFORD, A. M., Geologist of the State of Tennessee.
THE genus Tetradium, has been characterized by Prof. Dana in his great work on Zoophytes.* His description and remarks are as follows:
“ Coralla massive, consisting of 4-sided tubes, and cells with very thin septa or parietes; cells stellate with 4 narrow laminz.” “This genus is near Receptaculites, but differs in having ve thin parietes and four distinct rays within the cells, one to eac side. The specimen answering to the description, is a fossil of uncertain locality in the collections of Yale College, New Haven. The cells are about half a line in breadth. The name, from the
Greek, t#79«s, four, alludes to the quadrate structure.” - ar as we know, no further notice has been taken of this enus. To us it is of great interest from the fact that individu- als, belonging apparently to several species, are not very abund- ant in the limestones of the Silurian, or as we shall hereafter term it, the Central Basin of Middle Tennessee.
to nearly a line in breadth; they are very long, and are most frequently united throughout laterally, forming massive coralla
opora. he isolated tubes are nearly quadrangular, the edges — more or lessrounded. A slight linear depression down the mia
* United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838, 1939, 1840, 1841, 1842, under the command of Charles Wilkes, U.S.N. Vol. 8th, page 701.
4
| stellata Hall,
ees, ne ~
J. M. Safford on the Genus Tetradium. 237
dle of each side externally, opposite the lamelle. is Figure 1 will serve to give an’ idea of the trans- 98; verse, or horizontal section of one of these tubes. In the massive specimens the horizontal sections 0? Teukaren® of the tubes are square, or nearly so. In all of ™ oridea Vesa iares the species the walls are more or less rugose. linear.
The increase appears to be by the division of the tubes, the latter splitting sometimes into two cell-tubes, not unfrequently perhaps into four; opposite laminz unite and form the ne walls of the young celfs, each of which is in the mean time sup- plied with its four rays. ;
Among the numerous specimens of this genus, which we have seen, we have met with but one which shows clearly the pres- ence of transverse septa. This is a fragmentary specimen of the first species described below. In it the septa are distant about twice the breadth of a tube; but few however are seen, and these are confined to one end of the mass.
arately growing of i
Transverse “ey I b - a line. ‘Transverse septa usually absent. of afew tubes of 7
y en as the type of the genus, occurs abundantly throughout the upper half of the Lower
mass of woody fibre, and hence the name of the seer £3 2. T. columnare Hall; Syn. Chetetes columnaris Hall. al.
of N. Y., vol. i, p. 68, Pl. x1, Figs. 4, 4a—Mr. Hall's species,
238 iM. Safford on the Genus Tetradium.
we think referable to this genus. It differs from T. fibratum in the following particulars: the tubes are not as uniformly four- sided, nor are they arranged with equal regularity ; the walls are more strongly rugose; the lamellze appear to have been more delicate, and are generally not to be seen; traces of them how- ever can, in most instances, be found upon close examination. The four-sided character of the tubes is sufficiently well marked to justify this reference, in connection with the fact that traces of the lamelle can often be detected.
This.species is associated with the last,and occurs, in addition, lower in the series, with Columnaria ulveolata Hall. It is a common fossil in our Central Basin.
3. T. apertum Safford—Tubes isolated or fasciculated, or else united in linear series which often intersect, forming irregular reticulations ; breadth of tubes about half a line; lamellz as in T. fibratum.
This species includes certain open, loosely constructed corals which belong to this genus. Two varieties may be designated. These appear to run into each other in some specimens, thoug it may be found necessary hereafter to separate them.
a) Masses composed of separate tubes occasionally united by their sides. These forms often resemble Syringopora.
) Masses composed of tubes arranged in linear series, the lat- ter intersecting and forming masses like those of Hulysites caten- wlatus Linn.
Should it be found necessary to separate these varieties, the first ey be designated 7. laxum and the second 7. apertum.
We have observed no characters, with the exception of the =“ mode of growth which separate this species from 7. fibra-
Ne |
The first variety is abundant in the middle part of the Lower Silurian series of Middle Tennessee. The second is found in the upper half as well as near the base. We have observed the same species in Kentucky. «it
4. T. minus Safford—We include in this species massive speci mens, (generally small,) the tubes of which are only from 4th to 4d of a line in breadth. The tubes in some specimens are quite regular, in others, though generally four-sided, are more or less irregular and have the aspect on the upper surface of Cheetetes. ee as in T. fibratum. af
e have occasionally seen this species in the upper division: the Lower Silurian can in Middle Reset well as 2 Kentucky.
=
E.. Hitchcock, Jr., on a New Fossil Sheil. 239
nl
Art. XIX.—A new Fossil Shell in the Connecticut River Sand- stone ; by EH. Hircxcock, Jr.
T HAVE lately found in the coarse sandstone of Mount Tom, (Easthampton, Mass.,) a shell of a mollusk, the first I believe that has been discovered in the sandstone of the Connecticut Valley. It is preserved and not petrified, and a considerable part of it has disappeared. Enough remains however to enable us to refer it to a family if not to a genus of shells. It is ‘repre- sented in the annexed diagram of the natural size as it lies in
} — — ———
ppg
the rock. The upper part is gone, leaving an oval opening about an inch and three quarters in one diameter and an inch and one quarter in the other. It extends downwards, tapering somewhat rapidly nearly an inch and a half, and is left without a bottom, he lower opening being about an inch wide. The walls are Very thick, in some places nearly half an inch, and made up of Several concentric layers.
Tom the resemblance of this shell to a model of the lower valve of the Sphzerulites calceoloides in the Cabinet of Amherst College, it seems probable that it may be referred to that family of Brachiopods denominated Rudistx b
240 2=©=———s«. Coan on the Eruption at Hawaii.
as described in vol. xx, p. 22 of this Journal. The shell is found in the same coarse grit as the Clathropteris, immediately beneath the trap (see section in the paper just referre :
y referring to Bronn’s Letheea Geognostica, I find that the Rudiste with the exception of the genera—Orbicula and Cra- nia, are confined almost wholly to the Chalk Formation, and the shell from Mount Tom certainly comes nearer to the
creeping, like fiery serpents, in a thousand gory looking rills, over the smouldering masses of lava, long ionae ited “These
* From a letter to J. D. Dana, dated Hilo, March 7, 1856.
P
T. Coan on the Eruption at Hawaii. 241°
lateral outlets, or burst again to the surface by raising the super- incumbent crust into ten thousand tumuli, cracking it in every
crags. ‘The process is somewhat like that of a superabundant
channels under vast fieids of ice; allowing, of course, for the
where the angle of slope was small, say 1°. Here its progress ecame slow, it spread more widely, and refrigeration was more tapid, The surface, of course, hardened first. But this refrigera-
and extended higher and higher up the mountain, until at length
all the lava was covered except at occasional vents—as heretofore
movements, as it pushed sullenly along over the rocks, through the jungle and into the mud, the pools, and water courses. he Process of breaking up vertically and spreading out afresh upon the hardened crust, was occasioned by obstructions at the end of the stream, damming up the liquid, and thus obliging the accu- ihulating lavas to force new passages and outlets for disgorge- ment. In this way the stream was widened by lateral out- gushings, divided into several channels, swayed to the right and
* .
» {nd raised to great heights by pushing up from below, an
.
“ping mass after mass upon what had Leen its upper stra-
liantly at the end, it would suddenly harden and cool, “and for eral days remain inactive. At length, however, immense
n capped—domes > Week—hilla and ridges of scoria move anil clink—immense slubs Of lava are raised vertically or tilted in every direction, while a
SECOND SERIES, Vou. XXII, NO. 65,—SEPT., 1856. 31
« .
242 T. Coan on the Eruption at Hawaii.
five square miles. More than once have I been on such a field, and heard, and seen and felt more than is here or can be de- scribed. And yet the action of the lava is so slow—in the con- ditions described—that there is no fear, and little danger to one
ell acquainted with such phenomena. While the timid novi- tiate would flee for miles before such a scene, without looking back, and without consciousness of breathing, the experienced explorer will walk deliberately among the fiery pools, and rills, pry off the caps of bursting tumuli, and dip up spoils from the incandescent rocks.
When the lava becomes obstructed so that it ceases, for a time, to flow from the end of the stream, then the process which has been described takes place at some point above, and the molten mass coming up at many points, and accumulating on the sur- face, moves down in a superincumbent stream or streams, COv- ering up the hardened masses below, deepening the lava, and at length reaching the terminus of the former flow, pushes on into the standing forests, and continues its progress towards Hilo perhaps a mile or so, when this hardens and stops, and at longs the itp is repeated. Here you see the reason why Hilo not long since been buried.
Several large tributaries of the Wailuku—the stream which empties into our bay—are blotted vut, and the water of the Wai- luku is greatly reduced and rendered for the present unfit
or use.
Scenes of terrible splendor have been witnessed in some of our river channels, as the molten flood moved resistlessly dow), displacing the water, leaping the precipices, and lighting up the
anks with immense bonfires of flaming jungle. I have witnesse
two scenes of the kind of inexpressible brilliancy. One on the night of the 29th of January, and the other on the 12th of Feb- ruary. During the former night, the molten stream poured con- tinuously over a precipice of 50 feet, into a deep, dry basin, half filled with flood-wood. The angle down which this fire-ca
flowed, was about 75°: the lava was divided into two, three, and sometimes four channels, from one to four yards wide, and two or three feetdeep. The flow was continuous down the face of this pom from 2 Pp. M. on the 19th until 10 a. m. on the 80th, when we left, During the night the immense basin under the fall was filled, the precipice converted into an inclined plane
86
ee
T. Coan on the Eruption at Hawaii. 243
of about 4°, and the burning stream was urging its way along low. é:
the rocky channel belo
But the scene on the night of the 12th of February, was, in some respects, more gorgeous still, as it combined the element of water with that of fire. A stream of lava from 20 to 40 yards wide had followed the rocky and precipitous bed of a river, un-
sunset. It was intensely active, and about’ to pour over a pre- cipice of 89 feet (by measurement,) into a basin of deep water, large enough to float a ship. Before dark, the lava began to fall into the water, first in great broken masses, like clots of blood ;
of motion. The water boiled and raged with fearful vehemence, taising its domes and cones of ebullition ten feet high, and re- sa the red masses of fusion like a sea of fire mingled with
The evaporation was rapid and sublime. From the whole sur- face of the basin, a vast irregular, column of vapor rose and rolled upward in fleecy wreaths, and hung in a gilded and glo- Tlous canopy over the dark forest and over the fiery abyss. Al hight long the scene was ever changing and yet unchanged. +he convolutions and gyrations were constant and inimitable. Sometimes the fleecy pular would roll up vertically, until it seemed to form an entablature for the great dome of heaven. Again, it would career off upon the winds, like a glorious
‘axy, or break up in delicate tumuli to adorn the midnight sky. We encamped on the bank of the river, about fifty feet below the fiery cataract, and exactly opposite the basin of water mto which the lava was flowing, 20 feet only from its rim. | face of this precipice was an angle of about 80°, and the
lava flowed down it briskly and continuously, in streams from
‘one to four feet deep, during the night. Before morning this whole body of water, some 20 feet deep, was converted into steam, and the precipice became a gently inclined plane. Ina
w hours more the action ceased at this point and it has not
ween again renewed,
_1 have seen continuous lava streams flow rapidly down: the Sides of the mountain from 10 to probably 50 feet deep.
flows at an depth, or any angle, and at any rate of progress
20 feet an Soe to 40 miles. :
_, March 17.—The lava has made no progress towards us since
the date of this letter.
244 E. Nickles on Amorphous Phosphorus.
Arr. XXI—On the urification of Amorphous Phosphorus ; by
p M. Ernest NICKL
phorus), is obtained by heating common phosphorus for some C., in an atmosphere
of the sulphuret so that the ordinary phosphorus which ra 8 | not
red phosphorus, I have sought, by a study of the distinctive qualities of the two kinds of phosphorus to arrive at a safer and
tion of chlorid of calcium of 88 to 40 B., answers well the pul pose,—the lighter ordinary phosphorus floats on the surface while the heavier red phosphorus remains below; and the former is readily taken up by a little sulphuret of carbon which dissolves it, 80 that the operation can be performed in a closed vessel.
ies
E. Nickles on Amorphous Phosphorus. | 245
The following are the details of the process, A little sulphu-
ret of carbon is introduced into the retort in which the trans-
formation has been effected. If the material, which usually adheres strongly, does not detach itself, the bottom of the retort ‘is put into warm water. The disaggregation of the material
takes place immediately, and is attended with a slight noise. As
soon as the phosphorus is detached, the saline solution is added ; the vessel is then closed and shaken, and at the end of ten minutes the separation of the two is accomplished. If the
Three washings of this kind, will remove every trace of the ordinary phosphorus, however large the proportion. (ca
_ After separating the two liquids by decantation, it is only Recessary to turn upon a piece of linen cloth, the saline solution containing the red phosphorus. The purity of the product is so perfect, that it is useless to boil it with a solution o caustic pot- ash, the common method. The whole is com leted in half an hour ; and what is also important, it is attended with no danger, for the operation by being carried on in a close vessel, does not allow of the vaporization of the sulphuret of carbon and a oe, Sk of the inflammable phosphorus. __ :
cent observations have shown that the inhalation of the
Vapor of sulphuret of carbon is not without injury to the health; orkmen employed in the caoutchouc manufacture have suffer
x
Oe eenial da double advantage from this point of view, it diminishing the
quantity of sulphuret of carbon used and the chances of its inhalation.
Chemists will see the value of the mode of separating solid
‘substances of different specific gravities, mentioned above—a
method not requiring heat nor a direct solvent, and being both
fasy and expeditious.
246 ' Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. Art XXIL—Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy; by the Author.* —
Since the last Supplement was issued, but few new species have been proposed and several of these are of doubtful stand-
edges, although so delicate as to require a glass to distinguish them. Having received specimens from Professor Scacchi, the
American mineralogy, there has been the publication of some geological reports containing information on useful mine
rals and ores, and a few articles in the Journals. The only new _
minerals have been announced ina mining report, and in this
volume (p. 96), by Prof. C. U. Shepard. It is a
n brought out, ppeually in this country, without sufficient inves- tigation and ful ipti i
gions of error; and often much and long labor is required be- fore the science recovers from these backward steps.
1, List of New Works,
Dr. Cart Friepricn Naumann (Liepzig): Elemente der theoretischen Krystallo- graphie, 384 pp., 8vo, with 86 wood-cuts. Liepzig—This volume is oun & supplement to the former one (Anfangsgrunde der. Krystallographie) published in 1854. In that, the elements of the science are explained and the besa for caleu-
* For Supplements I and II, see this Journal, xix, 353 (May, 1855), and xxi, 198 : e Mineralogy.
(March, 1856). The paging inserted beyond, refers to the
.
.
Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 247
lations are given. This new work gives the mathematical demonstrations, com:
Dog, « with the principles of analytical geometry, tok two were more conven- iently incorporated in one work, in Naumann’s 2nd edition of his Crystallography published in 1830. Naumann is the best author o on the ielante of Crystallography.
ra gna der Mineralogie, 4th ed. 480 pp. 8vo. With 398 wood-cuts, —
- Durrenoy: Traité de Minéralogie, 2me edit. a ie tee an
Tome 2 et Tome 5, ian partie, et Atlas de 80 planches, 8yo,
Cnevatier Fr. von Haver & Fr. Farrerce: Cou up dc ere sur es de la Mon atch Autrichienne, rédigé par order de vhnstitae Impérial et Royal 2 le Golo, avec une introduction par uM. Haidinger.—252 pp. large 8vo, Vieuna,
G. H. Voter: On Leuchtenbergite and its associates, ip ate Garnet, Perofskite, Magnetite Tale-apatite, de. Pogg. xevi. 414 and 559, Contuins obser- vations on the analyses by — authors, with some ‘lotions that require more investigation to give them curr. ency.
‘Taeovor Ksrrutr (Adjunct an der Univ. hseeteits | Das Sehiaw ae ona en, chemisch-geognostisch untersucht. Auf V eranstaltung des Academ a 8 herausgegeben von A. Strecker, 68 A: mall 4to. spas a geol ia ee
Is work treats of the Silurian pele ¢ Christiania, and e y from a chem- ieal point of view Ww, giving many analyses, (of granites, por: RY syenites, traps, etc.) and the beari ing of the subject on the origin of the rocks. r
Dr. Gustay Grore Winktrr: Die Pseudomorphosen des Mineralreichs. 136 pp. 8¥0. Miinchen : 1856. J. Palm.—A clear and systematic review of the subject of pseudomorphism. The author recognizes two kinds of pseudomorphism : that due to woven n of the orginal material, and ie due to substit tution of om mineral
Species <a in dalebdn te pho ng the more solubl objet to i te the instances of a change of a dimorphous substa tarsi state to the other ve as that of aragonite to calcite, while ous pst ni te pw ar iain form) as psen-
morphs. He also takes no notice of t se pseudomorphs which arise from one mineral covering or encasing another and eagle in reverse its exterior form, bet mens a cavity once occupied by a crystal. Each of these kinds merits at ie ; i 1 j
a or covering over fluor is a common an a a bed form is een rn’ ral y
Several other pseudomorphs supposed to through solution, ma ay ha hn been rs this ating gl
nc of m8 piece pnt a cavity which another infiltrating Bohiea may fil, taking
A, Scaco isa sullo Incendio Vesuviano del mese di i maggio 1855, fatta per j incariog della R. Accad. delle Sci. dai Socii G. Guarini, L. Palmieri, ed A. Stach Preceduta dalla relazione ts eh: incendio del 1850, fatta da A. Scacchi. 268 pp. “to, with 6 plates. Napoli, 1
J. A. Hucanp: Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle: Galerie de Minéralogie - de Géol- apie, Dass des Collections, Classement et Distribution des Minéraux, Roches, Terrains, et es, ete. 190 pp. 16 mo. Put: 1855.
GC. Wake, First and Second pee er n the —— Satara of
BF. Shumard. Dr. Litton is chemist to the peony and his. report con Sie
of limestones, iron ores, etc. (vid. this Jour, xxi, 427), an M.S. ssance of the State of Tennessee, being the tem Sea ronal ge organ 8vo. Nashville, Tenn. 1856. Contains formation o the ore beds or veins of the State, of Iron, Copper, Lead, Zinc.
ae re four iron ore regions; (1) t the ite st through the State (J obn- | poe Carter, etc. Count eee in front of the Unak oup of mountains ; (2} the Dye- ane toyion skirting the eastern base of the Oumnbertand and Walden’s ridge from ginia to we Be elon Sequatchee and Elk valleys; (3) the Cumberland, associated with t measures, in the northern part of ihe State; (4) the West- ern, occupying a nip ‘tho t 50 miles wide of the western part of Middle Tennes- ont
”
out of Kentu r of the setae op: tag ape In — pe there are Limonite, Hematite rd, ¢ mn-s :
ennessee.
be known. At several vince the mines promise to be of v meter exists”
sparingly in southeast Tennescee, ‘in Blount Co., a ~ nies east of ‘nivale Spe
pee: of —— Mountain ay onroe, on ~ ay of Citico creek, in the bed cree
head w Tellico t bee ‘also in Polk Co. In eth f the gold deposited. aes e U. S. mint amoun ae } in 1848, $7,161; in Phy $5,180; in 1851, $2, a in 1852, Peso; in err
Silver glance has been fn nd i in two localities, both now doubtful. The spec reported by Dr. Troost, according to the author, probably came from the Cartel erous limestone, on or near the Calf-killer creek.
i ee tan “ coal marble, hydraulic limestone, and other products are mentioned in the v
W. Krroneti (New Jey tap S pemcenlg aces Annual Report of the Geo- logical Survey of New Jerse vO., on, 1856 —The iron and zine mines of the State are assert d po much Sone ati detail. At Mt. Hope nel. Mr. Wurtz sm a mineral which he has not yet examined, but announces as _ probably new (p. 192).
Cc : Report on the Canton Mine, eae. 20 pp. 8vo., 2nd edit, New Hives. 1836 —Contains an account of the minerals of the mine, yor indi- cations of three supposed new species called Harrisite, Hitchcockite, and Cherokine.
2. Crystallography, Formation of Minerals, etc.
Furn ‘roduct. Magee mentions (Soc. Sci. Gott. Nov. 1855) that Man- ganblénde occurs alte he cyano-nitrid of titanium, both in the furnaces of Gleiwitz, and the Royal Mines of Silesia; and Wohler bh og ee same from the Ht They had been taken for magnetic iron. They occur in the scoria which forms in the working of the blast furnaces. The erystals are esl in uistnet octahedrons, 4 millimeters in diameter. The color when fresh, is iron-bla d the lustre > tgeincd metallic; but becoming pee igo m~ scales on cxporur. It differs from bas native ime mice g oS — strongly peerey ene by the magnet, ee also in giving the reactions of iro ell as mangan ae fore the blowpipe.
it fuses with very os difficulty ee a rowed bind seo
ron ores, by E. F. Gio even xevi, 262). The
paper do nel og Poeun orphs of beoiniadiie C cater iron} fte i it earthy | red iron ore after he ; limonite after 4 kes mage ies ti
ee eee agnetite. They are similar to called in tite, or octahedral specular iron of Brotha upt. e% “ee ee
Goyiometer for the measurement of angles of with a plate. W. Haidinger. Pogg. xcv F590, erystals and for optical ee
Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 249 3. Descriptions of Species. Attayrre [Min. p. 208, and Suppl. 1, mJ. — Description tg Frere dhe of Allmit from At Hel
Norway, by D. Forbes and T. Dahil (Nyt. Mag. f. Nat. x 13) n crys- tals Wuletinies 4 inches long and 2 to 1 in. thick,“ ith et and mic a he oa Screen tou and vse» massive specimens have nee, =3 46—2-48,
n fro ing in red orthoclase, gave H.=6, Nair 86—-2°93, a Sedieh -black color ‘hd gece “gray streak, and afforded on analysis
Bi Se fe xX e: de, Dio dS... Geis Oe 3103 724 371 929 22:98 435 102 639 12:24 alkali and loss 1°75 ate occurs at Criffel in Scotland in small crystals in syenite and feldspathic _ ; &.P. Greg, Jr.
Aum [p. 38 eatin in the caves of the Unaka Mts., Eastern Tennessee, es- sare at Sevier, where masses of a cubic foot may be obt ained; also in the k slate of Middle Tennessee; in caves along the valleys and gorge ‘ i the treams in DeKalb, Coffee, Franklin, and other counties.—Safford’s Rep, p. 1
Atunogen [p. 881].—Occurs at Vesuvius with alum, Scacchi, op. cit., By “A white fibrous alunogen (?) occurs Caeae 2 at Smoky Mountain, sites Co., N. Carolina, According to Mr. Faber, there are ‘tons to be blasted at that t locality, —(Prof. J. C. Booth, in a letter to the aut
LVITE. a He Naresté in Norway. In dimetric mort like pnt Fracture — B= d. G i , becomi wen
Lustre greasy; opaque, on the edges a B.B. in the platisuen *nfusible,
color somewhat paler With nae rax ss greenish yellow while hot, colorless when cold, os salt of phosphorus . sae glass, green, and finally colorless on oe cooling. With tin no titanium ares In fine powder, not o prpiens by the acids, : An ‘ae hag of the mineral on a very sina portion and part of it somewhat altered
" Al,Be Fo Ar Ge vy Th?) Ga CuSn H 20:33 1411 966 3:92 O27 22:01 15:13 0-40 trace 932=9724
| rina NDALUSITE [p. 257 and ant 1, onl ae SP wom (1) of the Andalusite of Katha-
cone — Wunsiedel, hs near Meissen, and (3) of Braunsdorf
near Freiberg, by E. E. Sch at has + xev ii, 118):
) Si 1 Fe Oa Mig
$ BY BS Gh 8B Ms Bh ext
‘34 55825 3 22 1 4 -= =311
, . ted 5988 s:33sCOG1SsOIT_ = 9956 G. = 3.07
Oxygen ratio for the silica and ery ne? (1) 2:3 06, (2) git oa (3) 2: 2°86,
ese ae poding nearly to the formula [ Allowing that the protoxyds are com- 2:3] with purt of the silica, Nos. pine vai give anabenaioe ts nearly the ratio
ANotesire —Kokscharov figures a fine crystal of Anglesite from Mc on i Sr ini (i alee ii, 163). hay ated the occurrence of the ia ves the angles J: J=103° 434’, O:1=115° 35’. abe 39 .—Occurs in New Jersey. at Mt. Pleasant Mine, penile a bo, mse “set the junetion of the Rockaway River Sins the — Meadow 6 anil s of a mile from the canal. se “Sora 6 nei in diameter. Aputite is also abundant with the magnetite o yee —N. J. Geol. Rep. 1856.
Atacowire [p. 448, and Suppl. 11].—Pseudomorphs of the scaly massive ate of lin lime zh srry a Goran) after Gy oerald, are described b; G. Rive in Pogs. Ann. xevii, v7 Near WiederstaJt in Mansfeld, a fine gyps
_ SECOND iio, VOL. XXII, NO, 65.--SEPT., 1856, 32
250 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
contains selenite in large plates which are eae aps be this earthy carbonate. d the change by supposin s holding pees of
transparent; a L D tables have the pees and Seraph: of aragonite. sage gravity 2.984 a
kin ay. Color bite me aa bro to gold-yellow ; lustre submetallic, anak B-sided prisms th . The an i s ual “wits the micas, near 120°. Laminz but little elastic, Contains Si, Pe, , Mg, K, Na, Mn, Oa, and about 8 per cent of water with no fluor.
Aracautre (2) [p. 138, and Suppl. 1]—Prof. Scacchi questions the occurrence of mite at Vesuvius (op. cit, p. 197). The supposed atacamite occurs (1) in
Opaque crystals, bet een reen and bests bluish pre . crust, _ rough surface and emerald-green color; (4) in a very thin crust, © fine e en idaren en color. The first variety attic seems to be t
into the
ond, Prof. Se: noe concludes from his various trials, that the mineral does not contain chlorine; that its composition is not constant; that ordinarily on pricey? it in water, it affords an insoluble salt of a bluish color, which dissolves in nitric acid affords reactions of sulphuric acid and copper, and may be a basic sulphate of ¢ copper:
Binsrre [Suppl. 11].—This mineral which occurs with pes Asatte bh in the dol- omite of Binnen, is described by Ch. Heusser, in Pogy. xevii, 120. Cr stallization, trimetric. Occurring forms prismatic, stated hngitadkeally, the prism J, having
ometimes O, 1, %, and a macrodome Basal angle of the dome 4%, 48° 52’; of 6 77° 39’; of $%, 100° 38’; of 2%, 16° 12’. Color pale or dark steel-gray to ; streak- powder uniforml 3 Seg arker red than that of the dufrenoysite; very par frae- ture perfect conchoidal.
Boracrre [p. 393, and Suppl. a po ar massive boracite of Stassfurt, which wre ti true boracite i so ready solubilit i been
amed Stassfurtite by G. Rose (Pogg xevii, 632). e Solution in heated muriatie
acil deposits after : , wins, a ted boracic acid. The masses are not properly structureless but have a columnar one ition and the system of crystallization probably is nut monometric. ‘Chemica alpray: ite and, stassfurtite according to analyses, give a same formula; and if so, the two are an example of dim orp. H. Rose has n alyses under ip a ‘and other examinations of specimens clear up the soabie « on the subject
Borovateooatcrre [p, 394]. g Prcatang of this mineral from near Iquique, S. 4» by Rammelsberg (Pogg. xcvii, 301) :
Ca Na kK H 43:70 13 iL 6 67 0-83 35:67 = 100 $17 p.c. of chlorid of sodium, 0-41 sulphate of soda, and 0°39 of su hate OB obtained in the analysis being excluded. = gives the formula a Ne Behe
ysis 18H. The pe bro edter 3 in physical characters, which Hayes analy ipaed, 8 Aen him the composition Oa B?-+-6H. x vant E, D. Forbes and T. Dahll (N yt. Mag. f. Nat. = —In indistinct, probs stals, imbedded in orthociase, and found near Helle, Narestd, Alvé and ake, orway. Fracture pone H=6—65. @. = 13—5'36.
Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 251
brown ; streak yellowish brown. Lustre semi-metallic. Thin splinters translucent, Decrepitates strongly — Geigy water. B.B, in the platinum forceps infusible, but
ellow: with bo glass which is brownish yellow while hot, but my and finally ses Ad oe on eoalialy In salt of phosphorus, a skeleton of si
Breunvertre [p. 443].—The Tautoclin of Rt te occurs (N. Jahrb. f. Min. etc., 1855, 842) in pore heal R5, or R8.4R3 Se after calcite,
urs in the ne mine, near Freiberg ; genes pripecsese ase Schnee- berg, Przibram in Bohemia, de, Ettling obtained for the tautoclin o f Beschert- ar Freiberg :
C4575 Gaov48 Mg1685 e925 Mn1-29 = 9762 Catorre [p. 435, S08 and Suppl. 1, 1],—A variety of curved columnar calcite aes Freiberg in Sax ony, according to gay Bi (Fogg. xevii, 811) has each column made up of a series of tabular crystals R [of the form in fig. 574 ©, p. 435 of Min. only very short] united in fe Pie of the vertical axis. e diameter is nostly 2 or 8 mi ayy Rice eculiar forms of grouping and poe of struc- ure are described in the ig
CARNALLITE, H. Rose. cee 9 by B H. Rose (Pogg. xeviii, 161). Occurs mixed with the stone salt of Stassfurt inc se granular masses, having a shining a ome 5 rsh and parm sc showings a plane surface after the action of water over the surface, as if in dicating ohare or a - without one ts tinet sal of iti in a fresh separ Dissolves easily in water. Composition cording to Mr. Oesten, assistant to Prof. Rose:
MgCl KCl NaCl 9 CaCl ¥e(mixed) H can) a0 31°46 24:27 5:10 2-62 014 = 100 2 S051 2497 455 O14 6 = 100 The water by direct Seger - 87-27. Part of this water is united to the chlorid of calcium, 2-54 p.c. in No, 1, and 291 in No, 2; so that the water of the J oreme is reduced to ons $8 per cent. The composition then becomes K Cl
The name Carnallite i is after Mr. von Carnall of the Prussian Mines. gaat A 68 and Suppl. m].—An account t of the Cobre age of Sy a
de Cuba, b Ansted, is contained in the Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., ‘ip P 444].—On the o of the carbonate of iron in the oa Measures, MER Moser Pros boot tee Watt Hist. 1866, 268, wot Amo. d. Sci, xi 280: CHEROKINE, 0. U. Shepard—A « s yet imperfectly described by the author, Crystallizes like pyromorphite aren ot has the color of page ee Specific gravity, 48, ike yo ear ge a of alumina and oa [ saa =5% given, ae ena ste would s bility that the mine
of a sesquoxyd with zine, caledg a pse' gene DD.)
CHLOROPHANERITE, G. Jenzsch.—From the amygdaloid in the vicinity of Weissig, It had been referred to chloro , and om chlorite (Daou?
i a ree a Min, et, 1855, 798.) in a partial anal Silica 59°4, proto nae iron 12: a, water ov m oa
Streak G. = 2684. be vial Th muriatic y apple gr iiscoi, no een, the silica separa’ According to Site the particles of a or rei — yr ified, a slight double refraction. Pproaches nearest m Iceland analyzed by yon Walt Rrecit me gave, Gi B08 ay 5on0, st, Ca 0005 Mg 4954, Fe 15°723, K 5-036, 4444 = 98131 (Vulk. Gest, p. 301). Cunvsourre [p. 184, and see 1, 11].—A mineral looking like some kinds of ‘fun
he T rol, in a taleose tine rock Soot of eal f calcite, ge ag ¢ i collection of M. A of Paris
252 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
has been analyzed by M. A. re and shown to be Chrysolite. He obtained (L’Institut, No, 1148, xxiv, 4, Jan. 1856):
Si Ti Mg Fe Mn H 36°30 530 49°65 6°00 0°60 1:95==99°80 aay 18°85 211 19°50 1-79 0:13 173 Pango have the oxygen ratio 1:1, as in chrysolite. po the
sae: acid is not ascertained. [This mode of occ ce of ~seh g is sb en to that of the Boltonite (chrysolite) in granular limectali 2 ve Glinkite (another bebe in talcose slate. May it be that the titanium is a mixture with titani —p.|
Nistoxire and Heppurre [p. 465, and Bouse 1t].—According to R. P. Greg, Ea. in a recent letter to the author, these two species, though curious in them- selves, have been found to be artificial.
p. 887 and Suppl. 1].— Analysis of fibrous copiapite (stypticite) from one oni by E. Tobler (Ann, “chy Phar. xcvi, 383) : Saipbtins atid 31:49, sesquoxyd of iron 31:69, water 3682 =
fp.8s 0].—Observed rather pee! by Scacchi about fumaroles
after the eruption at Vesuvius in 1855 (op. cit., p. 195). = of it is in a brownish
friable beats obtained by dissolving the maling crus ai —o essen in brownish-
es hexago nal crystals. Also asa yellowis ish crust, in many parts tinged green, mpact in texture, and with a very bright ore in 5 tie fresh fracture.
Crroute [p. 97 and Suppl. oy —J. W. Tayler, Esq., bas given a descript tion of the mode of occurrence of eryolite in Greenland, with wood cut Salve tia in the Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. xii, 140. The locality is at Evigtok, about twelve m Arksut, on sed emits of that name. The rock is gneiss and granitic gnebil It is intersected by a vein of quartzrock containing coarsely crystallized feldspar, eryo- lite, and ores oe irom, pid ey he tantalum, ete., running about southwest, pee: other small olite; and de the east and Pach! there is a trap- dvke. The main mass of ray forms a be vein paralle strata nearly east and west, dipping S 45°, and is shout 80 feet thick ee 300 long. It is bounded along the walls by a band of spathic iron, quartz, and in seme parts by fluor and galena, while near the walls in the cryolite there are more or less galena,
ssite i i
copper and iron pyrites, ete Tantalite and cassiterite occur vg lite. The ena contains 45 oz ilver to the nd is worked. In low rege is black, and the white ros of the upper Pa is = airbus - pee re to
heat. e author infers “that the trap now found a’ pee be vyolite ol tt Ai it, heating it ees ially and r vaaiotig
CYANOCHROME, Seacchi—A sulphate of potash and copper, among the pro- cts of Vesuvius, at the eruption of 1855 (op. cit. p. 1 sitome blue crystals
obtained by dissolving and evaporating the saline crust, from the lava of Vesuvius; also in azure blue spots upon the white crust. Com aa ey ak + 36a) ee 3H. Form of crystals monoclinic. C (or So of rates xis) = 75° 8
Occurring planes, O, 14, 2i, iz, 1, Z 2 0: oa $04 0: nasties 56, O:1i=1419 47’, 0: 2i1= = 116° 49’, I: “fading
Analysis of a ete op pe athe Chili, by E. Tobler (Ann. Ch. u xevi, 383): Sulphuric acid 32:41, — of iy te per 80°77, water rics loss) 36° v2=100, decomposition o cai ypyrite.
Darnourre [p. 334 and Suppl. 1, a —- Schréder has made many n w measure: —_. of Sate it > epi ( Pogg i, 84) a“ concludes from: them that the the tan ORG of the axis, 90° 7’. He figures a a crystal
os ot mtg in that table,
eke See ot Fea ee re ae a ee re Se es ee teen e i Ee eee
Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 253
etiam oiineiinina ling sali O hl 22 | 24 | 9 li 4i 44| 49 | 44 | 43 2i 2 aa Zz. 2 | 33 Bieri ora act 42 4 43 jf | = cea Macaca ABT Sal SMS panne Riera cave, 62 | 68 -33 Sar: =| es | Se Se a, 82 —2i -2 ot x Siete es — at be iad + 2 Andreasberg. — 42 —2i -2 Z Feet Fee E'S ee ae Be sail Be a0sa2 American. _ [The —o for convenience of comparison, are made to corr a ave in the Min. p. 385 ; _by oe for e sna - the axes a: 6: fe, they are converted in ose 0 er. To w farther ee ef ‘the American crystals of Peces 490, ro 493 of Min) a a table of as Pmes is added, the form being tak li In the e prism of
* lead 26’ (7) is the densaad one, while i in those of 1 Europe, that of ie 44’ (i2) is
Selivider gives the following values to some of the angles; J: J=115° 19’, 12:12 76° 36, 99: 99 oe ord 58’, -2:-2 (front)==131° 43’, O:ii= 90° 7’, O: 2¢=185° 8/, O: 23 = 141° 7, O: 22= 147° 39’, 0: -2 = 130° 77
ALLOGITE —A variety from Oberneisen, named Himbeerspath by Bethan sat atic 28 in acute rhombobedrons with truncated summits, afforded
tnbacher (Ann. Ch, u. Pharm. a aa Carbonate of manganese 91°31, “elon of nse 6 5: 71, curb of iro’
Dotomrre [p. 441, and gees 1, 1], near Lettowitz, etc, Moravia, E. F. Glocker, Jahrb, k. k. geol. Reichs, 1855
Dorreyoysrre nd Suppl. 1, 11].—Ch. Heusser is species anew in Pogg. xevii, ral Forme é ae eee ik i fi "pena ( Te cube with
angles replaced by cube with cube with planes /, 2-2. 3; cube with planes J 2 2-3, A Gotabetioey 6- im Color i fresh fracture “black, some-
es brownish o r greenish; streak cherry-red. Hardness a little above that of fluor ; brittle.
Ertnore tore [p. 206, and Suppl. m].—Occurs in beautiful gage “2 Roseville, Byram Township, Sussex Co, New au y.—Kitchell’s Geol. Rep, p. 1
—Occurs in Tennessee, at different places, and most
Ersomtre + remarka- by at the ae, Fea in anneal in a mountainous region on the head waters of the ipa Fork sed — an Under the shelving ruck, (“rock-house”) masses Sord’s Re “Ey ree laces in Spain especially in the province of Toledo, near a oll | i oe i nig arts at the eruptions of 1850 and
i, op. cit. p. 1
254 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
Ervsescrre [p. 38]—Analysis of ore from Coquimbo in Chili by W. Bécking (Ann. Ch, u. Pharm. xevi, 244) :—Sulphur 25°46, copper 60°80, iron 18° 67==09'93.
Feupsrar [p. 228, and Suppl. 1, 11].-Analyses (1 to 4) of Glassy eer by Dr. G. Lewinstein (Ueber die Zusamm. des Glas. Fel dspaths, etc., posh , 18 56). N 1 from volcanic sand, 2, 8, 4, from trachyte and trachytic conglomerat:
Si xi #e Ga Mg Na K F. cee Eifel, Hs 65 1891 —- 149 076 445 '774=100 G.=2578 28 883 —— 042 O81 115 131 2. ee 8 ve. . e 091 1:05 O88 249 11°79==100 Oxygen, 3030 029 035 064 1-96 3. Drachenfels, res $61 1645 158 097 06538 204 1234100 G—=2°60 Oxygen, 3440 769 047 027 0°20 052° 217
4. Pappelsberg, [6603] 1787 052 047 019 608 886=100 G=2616 Oxygen, 8428 835 016 013 O07 155 1:50 In No. 3, the silica as directly determined equals 66 The analyses give quite closely the tenia nse R Si+8 Sis. | If the iron be taken‘as protoryd, the well to the formula 9R Si+7# Si*. Heusser refers the Hyalophan of Walters — ~ ppl 1], to Adularia es with
in ifferent ¢ m te blowpipe, she found — tale os om Moreover dotainit and heavy often occur as other impurities and partly may account for some of the resaltalt the analysis. The Weissigite of G. Jenzsch has afforded him (N. Jahrb. f. Min. ete. 1855, 800):
Si Al Mg Ca K Li FI, loss. a. 65-00 19°54 161 0-19 12°69 0:56 0°35 ==99°94 , * 65°21 0°55 aloidal cavities, in layers with chaleedony, etc. No. 1 is rion the sida or otis. of two layers, the color flesh red ; 2°551— nya oti i ria is from a second a ay” color paler rose-red to Meddich-white ; a= — ge! aes or the proto: be ds and sili No 1 315: oa 33°75, cheno te i“ go Pe of i ee No, 2
is a pera Hy after Laumont tite. nalysis of No. 1 above comes nearest to the feldspar of Radeberg (see Suppl a, Prose feldspar). The same amygdaloidal cavities contain the chlorophanerite and the weissigite. Bischof rdbaiied (Lehrb. Geol. ii tee from a feldspar pseudomorph after ba from the Kilpatrick Hills "(whe e others occur with the form of anal-
i Pe a 6. Mg =—* "Nes 6200 2000 064 060 trace 1654 1-08 08% 1019 Oxygen, 32:19 935 - O19 17 261 O27 Ferausontte.—See Trrire, this Supplement.
FREIsLesenite [p. 79].—A ie which has been referred to Freislebenite and is probably near Bournonite, scribed as new by — in eo xeviii, 165. —. rs 7 tables (2 paieiaens thick and a oss) of the mono-
day em, with two planes making up each margin of the ‘ible. Acute plane angle o ear about rt Pa. ==? 6. G=6 a 2606. Color iron th streak black. Brittle. BB. fuse asily to a black chining globule and yields finally a globule of silver. bere silver soneticuten oo i a cent. The charcoal becomes covered with fumes pa ae. the mineral probably consists-of silver, lead, antimony;
Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy 255 avactiTE [Su 1, 1].—In the author’s 1st ee ip te: Pring acs : 1855), he prdatiad - that the asters of galactite a i ¢ formals of natrolite, whence, he concluded, that galactite is Rt rolite. ee specime ‘ - gianna 1 have since been examined by Dr, eda oie Mag. ‘sh Xi, 272), an mposition of natrolite eee in eae (1, 2, 3) are hi eentta together with analyses of related
Si Al OGalSCONa : Glenfarg, oe 48-24 2700 082 14:82 oa = 10012 47-84 27-112 4312 11-304 1024 = 100808 3 Campsie Hille, 47-324 27:36 263 - ‘954 10. 392— 101-060 4. Bisho ptown, white, 4760 2660 0-16 “36 56 = 99:78 5. “ "pink, 47-76 2720 0-93 is 2 956 = 99 : Baating net } 48.033 25:26] 2313 13-975 9-723 rete: om Pi tigeen 573 7. Dumbarton Moor, 46-96 26-908 376 1283 9:50 —
ENA [p. 39, 506, and Suppl. 1, 1].—A galena cnt 87 p. c. of sulphur, i is 51°30 of a of lead has been observed at Neu-Sinka, Sitenbang and — y mann. This mechanical mixture hie been called super-sulphu- lead and ie Joleittonite Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichs. 1855, 1
Garver [p. 190, and Suppl. 1, 1].—An analysis of the green garnet which occurs in brevicite on the a of Stokoe in the Brevig Fiord afford Dr. D. Forbes (Edinb. N. Ph. J. [2], iii, Jan. 1856):
Ae Al #e Mn Ca Mg Nad loss ai 8-73 20°55 2:40 32-09 trace -- 1-27 4 33 84 918 20°31 31:92 oe 23:94
30-1 id ts Stead to the formula, as Dr. Forbes states, ({Ca?+4#e) ato ee = eager 35° fle pes 32:98, eoraioxys he = (alumina) 31:41=100, iden in composition with lanite, notwithstanding ite — The cals lie together, forming 6-sided RE 7 are di stinct »mbic dodecahe- oe Color fine leek-green. G. (from 76 crystals at 60° F.) 3 Melanite from in Teil tuhl afforded Schill (G. Leonh. Min, Badens, 1855, in Ny, aes 1855, 838): Si Al Oa M, Fe Mn 45°80 11-00 22°10 2-00 18:25 770 = 99°85 = ‘Suppl. nr, under Garnet, for Bi read Si.]
BERTITE [p. 223].—E. Zschau states his Heyes that wither ¥ at Graupen is dre fom topes, : here it occurs associated with topaz, tin ore, fluor, apatite
ries : rat the same he regards as ear true of ‘the gee of Al- tenberg, Ehrenfriedersdorf, ete—(Letter to G. J. B, a3 under Unpirz.)
Gtasenrre [p. 65].— According to Scacchi {cp cit., p. 186) this sulphate of pot- ~ which is not ome at Vesa nae rather abundant at the eruption of 1848, sparingly in that of 1
Gvaxo—Prof. C. U. Shepard has given names to t portions s of the har- dened or = “ petrified” potatoes i en in the Soca Sea (Am. J. Sei, Pa XXil, 96) ing ony collectively pyroguanite minerals. He remarks that the guano se jected to th
* : zp etertee 0 * ed waters. The same kind covers unhardened - gigind Boies ee Pay rose i i i e 4 ish color, he has named pyroclasite, the name alluding ‘a its fying to pieces when ated. t, J ‘4, consi of lime and 10 p. c. of water; while the remainder is made up of a little fiesta
Matter, Moh er of lee cl Meee adh lime, sulphate ar z soda ger traces of chlori
256 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
Another of the so-called specie is named Glaubapatite. It is described as occur-
ring in small tabular crystals, and in druses, forming botryoidal and stalactitie -
masses, with columnar radiating flattened fibres ; also massive ; —- r pale yellowish or greenish-brown; translucent; H.=3'5; G.=2°6. Also chocolate-brown to nearly black when massive. Chemical examination afforded, redhat ‘of ser 74:00, sul- phate of soda 15°10, water 10°30, organic matter, sulphate of lime and chlorid of
rdium, a Sabor =99'40, [From the composition obtained, it can hardly be a chemi- cal com
Epiglowdite is Bo name of the third guano product. It occurs “in small aggre- gates or interlac asses of te semitransparent sabrnal of a shining vitreous lustre, which are pms yplanted upon druses of glaubapatite. H. about 2°5.” It
upon is stated to be “a largely hydrated rs ose opie of lime, <r may also ae d hele? save acid,
magnesia an. n dilute m B.B. fuses easily to a transparent colorless glass ee g dan ti
Gypsum [p. ac and Suppl 1]—Gray’s Cave, Sumner Co., Tennessee, affords fine specimens of selenite, snowy